Errol  C.    ttilkey, 
Library  Book  No. 190. 


THE 

LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

LEADING  FORMS  OF  LITERATURE  REPRESENTED 
IN  THE  SACRED  WRITINGS 


INTENDED  FOR  ENGLISH  READERS 


BY 

RICHARD  G.  MOULTON,  M.A.  (CAMBR.),  PH.D.  (PENNA.) 

PROFESSOR  OF   LITERATURE   IN   ENGLISH    IN   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF  CHICAGO 
LATE   UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION  LECTURER   (CAMBRIDGE  AND  LONDON) 


REVISED  AND  PARTLY  REWRITTEN 


BOSTON,  U.S.A.:  D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO. 

LONDON :   ISBISTER  &  CO.,  LIMITED 
1908 


COPYRIGHT,  1895  AND  1899, 
BY  RICHARD  G.  MOULTON. 


ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 


AN  author  falls  naturally  into  an  apologetic  tone  if  he  is  pro- 
posing to  add  yet  one  more  to  the  number  of  books  on  the  Bible. 
Yet  I  believe  the  number  is  few  of  those  to  whom  the  Bible  appeals 
as  literature.  In  part,  no  doubt,  this  is  due  to  the  forbidding 
form  in  which  we  allow  the  Bible  to  be  presented  to  us.  Let  the 
reader  imagine  the  poems  of  Wordsworth,  the  plays  of  Shake- 
speare, the  essays  of  Bacon,  and  the  histories  of  Motley  to  be 
bound  together  in  a  single  volume ;  let  him  suppose  the  titles  of 
the  poems  and  essays  cut  out  and  the  names  of  speakers  and  divi- 
sions of  speeches  removed,  the  whole  divided  up  into  sentences 
of  a  convenient  length  for  parsing,  and  again  into  lessons  contain- 
ing a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  these  sentences.  If  the  reader 
can  carry  his  imagination  through  these  processes  he  will  have 
before  him  a  fair  parallel  to  the  literary  form  in  which  the  Bible 
has  come  to  the  modern  reader;  it  is  true  that  the  purpose  for 
which  it  has  been  split  into  chapters  and  verses  is  something 
higher  than  instruction  in  parsing,  but  the  injury  to  literary  form 
remains  the  same. 

Of  course  earnest  students  of  Scripture  get  below  the  surface  of 
isolated  verses.  Yet  even  in  the  case  of  deep  students  the  literary 
element  is  in  danger  of  being  overpowered  by  other  interests. 
The  devout  reader,  following  the  Bible  as  the  divine  authority  for 
his  spiritual  life,  feels  it  a  distraction  to  notice  literary  questions. 
And  thereby  he  often  impedes  his  own  purpose :  poring  over  a 
passage  of  Job  to  discover  the  message  it  has  for  him,  and  for- 
getting all  the  while  the  dramatic  form  of  the  book,  as  a  result  of 
which  the  speaker  of  fehe  very  passage  he  is  studying  is  in  the  end 


iv  PREFACE 

pronounced  by  God  himself  to  have  said  the  thing  that  is  "  not 
right."  Another  has  been  led  by  his  studies  to  cast  off  the 
authority  of  the  Bible,  and  he  will  not  look  for  literary  pleasure  to 
that  which  has  for  him  associations  with  a  yoke  from  which  he  has 
been  delivered.  A  third  approaches  Scripture  with  equal  rever- 
ence and  scholarship.  Yet  even  for  him  there  is  a  danger  at  the 
present  moment,  when  the  very  bulk  of  the  discussion  tends  to 
crowd  out  the  thing  discussed,  and  but  one  person  is  willing  to 
read  the  Bible  for  every  ten  who  are  ready  to  read  about  it. 

Now  for  all  these  types  of  readers  the  literary  study  of  the 
Bible  is  a  common  meeting-ground.  One  who  recognises  that 
God  has  been  pleased  to  put  his  revelation  of  himself  in  the  form 
of  literature,  must  surely  go  on  to  see  that  literary  form  is  a  thing 
worthy  of  study.  The  agnostic  will  not  deny  that,  if  every  particle 
of  authority  and  supernatural  character  be  taken  from  the  Bible, 
it  will  remain  one  of  the  world's  great  literatures,  second  to  none. 
And  the  most  polemic  of  all  investigators  must  admit  that  appre- 
ciation is  the  end,  and  polemics  only  the  means. 

I  am  desirous  that  the  reader  should,  from  the  outset,  understand 
exactly  in  what  sense  I  use  the  words  I  have  adopted  as  the  title 
of  this  work  —  The  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible.  Of  course,  the 
Bible  being  a  literature,  there  is  a  sense  in  which  every  careful 
treatment  of  Scripture  has  a  claim  to  be  called  literary  study. 
Yet,  in  the  sense  in  which  I  use  the  term,  the  Literary  Study  of 
the  Bible  is  a  new  study.  Its  newness  rests,  not  upon  sudden 
advance  in  our  knowledge  of  Semitic  peoples  and  institutions,  but 
upon  our  changed  attitude  to  the  whole  field  of  literary  investiga- 
tion. It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  Study  of  Literature, 
properly  so  called,  is  only  just  beginning.  In  the  past  we  have 
concerned  ourselves,  not  with  Literature,  but  with  literatures  :  the 
writings  of  Greek,  of  Hebrew,  of  German  writers  have  been 
reviewed  in  connection  with  the  Greek,  the  Hebrew,  the  German 
language  and  history,  as  elements  in  Greek,  Hebrew,  German 
studies.  We  are  now  beginning  to  feel  that  there  is  a  separate 


PREFACE  v 

entity,  Literature,  which  claims  to  itself  a  special  type  of  treat- 
ment. Such  a  change  is  a  repetition  of  what  has  been  seen  else- 
where in  the  field  of  education  and  research.  There  was  a  time 
when  Greek  and  German  philosophical  works  were  considered  to 
belong  to  the  special  studies  of  Greek  or  German ;  now  everyone 
will  recognise  a  Study  of  Philosophy,  one  and  undivided,  in  rela- 
tion to  which  Greek  philosophy  and  German  philosophy  are  con- 
tributing elements.  So  the  investigation  which  recognises  the 
unity  of  literature,  and  frames  its  methods  solely  in  application  to 
this  literary  fiela,  is  the  newer  Study  of  Literature ;  and  in  the 
spirit  of  this  study  the  present  work  has  been  undertaken. 

A  fundamental  change  in  the  scope  of  literary  investigation 
carries  other  changes  with  it.  When  literature  was  linked  with 
language  and  history  in  one  common  study,  it  was  inevitable  that 
the  historical  element  in  literature  should  become  prominent.  In 
the  broader  field  of  independent  literary  study  the  historical  side 
of  literature  falls  into  the  background.  In  its  place  another  ele- 
ment comes  into  prominence  —  what  may  be  called  morphological 
treatment :  the  inquiry  into  the  foundation  forms  of  literature, 
such  as  Epic,  Lyric,  Dramatic,  the  varieties  of  these,  and  the 
detailed  structure  by  which  each  form  is  built  up.  Nowhere  has 
literary  morphology  so  important  a  place  as  in  application  to  the 
Sacred  Scriptures.  If  the  question  be  of  Greek  or  of  English,  it 
is  taken  for  granted  that  a  large  variety  of  literary  types  are  to  be 
expected.  On  the  other  hand,  it  comes  to  most  people  as  a 
novelty  to  hear  that  the  Bible  is  made  up  of  epics,  lyrics,  dramas, 
essays,  sonnets,  philosophical  works,  histories,  and  the  like.  More 
than  this,  centuries  of  unliterary  tradition  have  so  affected  the 
outer  surface  of  Scripture,  that  the  successive  literary  works  appear 
joined  together  without  distinction,  until  it  becomes  the  hardest  of 
tasks  to  determine,  in  the  Bible,  exactly  where  one  work  of  litera- 
ture ends  and  another  begins.  The  morphological  analysis  of 
Scripture  thus  urgently  required  is  precisely  the  purpose  to  which 
I  have  applied  myself  in  the  present  work :  it  is  '  An  Account  of 
the  leading  Forms  of  Literature  represented  in  the  Sacred  Writ- 


vi  PREFACE 

ings.'  And  its  underlying  principle  is  that  a  clear  grasp  of  the 
outer  literary  form  is  an  essential  guide  to  the  inner  matter  and 
spirit. 

It  is  the  more  necessary  to  insist  upon  a  distinctively  literary 
study  of  the  Bible  from  the  fact  that  the  type  of  Bible  study  which 
at  the  present  moment  is  most  prominent,  and  which  from  the 
magnitude  even  of  its  undisputed  results  has  a  claim  to  that  prom- 
inence, is  of  a  different  character.  The  '  Higher  Criticism  '  — 
so  it  is  called  in  popular  phraseology  —  seems  to  jne  in  the  main 
an  historical  analysis.  Its  allegiance  is  not  to  literature,  but  to 
Semitic  Studies,  in  which  literary  questions  are  inextricably  inter- 
woven with  questions  of  language  and  history.  It  goes  beyond 
the  text  of  Scripture  to  a  further  inquiry  into  the  authority  of  the 
existing  text,  its  mode  of  composition,  the  dates  and  surrounding 
conditions  of  its  authorship.  Historic  questions  of  this  kind  the 
Higher  Criticism  examines  by  historic  methods.  In  the  inquiry 
here  undertaken  topics  like  these  will  have  scarcely  any  place. 
Literary  investigation  stops  short  at  the  question  what  we  have  in 
the  text  of  the  Bible,  without  examining  how  it  has  come  to  us. 
Whoever  may  be  responsible  for  the  Sacred  Scriptures  as  they 
stand,  these  are  worthy  of  examination  for  their  own  sake ;  and 
the  literary  study  of  the  Bible  brings  to  bear  on  these  writings  the 
light  that  comes  from  ascertaining  the  exact  form  they  are  found 
to  present. 

Among  the  chief  difficulties  of  what  is  here  attempted  must  be 
reckoned  the  large  number  of  readers  permeated  with  the  exclu- 
sive historic  spirit,  to  such  an  extent  that  they  can  recognise  no 
other  element  in  literary  study.  They  would  assume  for  the  whole 
of  literature  what  is  true  only  for  particular  works ;  seeing  how 
Dryden's  Satires  are  without  point  for  those  who  are  unversed  in 
Restoration  politics,  they  fail  to  see  that  Shakespeare's  plays  may 
produce  their  full  effect  even  upon  a  reader  who  is  unaware  that 
the  historical  Macbeth  was  a  good  king.  Such  a  spirit  prevails 
largely  among  Bible  scholars.  Yet  their  own  studies  might  have 
taught  them  differently.  What  is  to  be  said  about  the  question 


PREFACE  vii 

No  portion  of  the  Bible  is  more  captivating  to  the  liter- 
ary instinct :  but  how  is  literature  to  be  helped  here  by  history  ? 
A  few  years  ago  the  historians  were  in  practical  agreement  that 
this  prophecy  was  to  be  referred  to  the  age  of  Joash ;  now  our  criti- 
cal orthodoxy  depends  upon  our  recognising  for  it  a  post-exilic 
date.  Between  the  two  periods  is  an  interval  of  some  five  centu- 
ries, and  the  variety  of  surrounding  conditions  is  such  that,  as  a 
distinguished  Hebraist  has  said,  the  question  of  Joel  is  like  the 
discussion  whether  a  particular  work  was  produced  under  William 
the  Conqueror  or  under  Cromwell.  No  discredit  whatever  at- 
taches to  historic  studies  on  the  ground  of  this  difference  of  opin- 
ions, for  the  simple  truth  is  that  the  Book  of  Joel  does  not  contain 
sufficient  evidence  for  settling  its  date ;  the  case  is  like  that  of  an 
indeterminate  equation,  to  which  there  may  be  half  a  dozen  equally 
accurate  solutions.  But  in  this  case  what  becomes  of  the  conten- 
tion that  literature  can  be  appreciated  only  in  the  light  of  its  his- 
toric surroundings  ? 

If  we  go  outside  the  polemic  atmosphere  of  Biblical  Criticism  it 
is  easier  to  obtain  recognition  for  the  distinction  between  historic 
and  purely  literary  treatment.  Shakespeare  has  given  us  certain 
historical  plays  :  there  arise  in  reference  to  these  just  the  questions 
that  are  agitated  in  regard  to  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  One  critic 
thinks  the  plays  the  work  of  William  Shakespeare ;  another  thinks 
they  were  written  by  Bacon ;  another  laughs  at  both  opinions  and 
believes  the  author  unknown.  Yet  another  discriminates,  and 
by  internal  evidence  discovers  that  the  plays  were  composed  by 
Shakespeare  and  certain  coadjutors :  he  is  ready,  when  called 
upon,  to  produce  a  polychrome  edition  in  which  the  Shakespeare, 
the  Marlowe,  and  the  Fletcher  elements  will  be  distinguished  to 
the  eye.  One  commentator,  like  Coleridge,  takes  his  history  of 
England  from  the  plays ;  another  contends  that  they  are  on  this 
subject  utterly  misleading,  the  dramatist  having  first  used  untrust- 
worthy materials,  and  then  altered  freely  with  a  view  to  other  than 
historic  effects.  Yet  it  is  clear  that  six  persons  representing  these 
different  historical  views  might  unite  amicably  in  a  box  at  a  theatre 


viii  PREFACE 

to  witness  the  performance  of  one  of  these  plays ;  they  might,  not 
improbably,  find  themselves  in  entire  agreement  as  to  the  literary 
force  and  significance  of  every  passage.  It  would  seem  absurd, 
on  the  other  hand,  if  one  of  these  critics  were  to  interrupt  in  order 
to  protest  that  the  passage  just  commenced  by  the  actor  was  not 
Shakespeare's,  or  that  recent  discoveries  in  Spanish  state  papers 
had  shown  the  motive  assigned  in  the  play  to  Henry's  foreign 
policy  to  be  incorrect,  and  if  actors  and  audience,  in  the  interests 
of  accuracy,  agreed  to  suspend  the  performance  until  these  ques- 
tions could  be  settled.  To  state  these  obvious  facts  is,  of  course, 
not  to  depreciate  the  historic  analysis  of  Shakespeare  in  the  inter- 
ests of  literary  appreciation,  but.  merely  to  claim  that  the  two 
studies  are  entirely  different. 

Some,  indeed,  will  admit  that  the  historic  and  the  literary 
studies  are  theoretically  distinct ;  but  why,  they  ask,  should  the  two 
not  be  united  in  practice  ?  They  ought  to  be  united,  in  the  sense 
that  the  complete  student  will  undertake  both.  But  they  must  not 
be  undertaken  together ;  for  the  whole  method  and  spirit  of  the 
two  are  in  opposition.  Historic  analysis  must  sceptically  question 
the  very  details  which  literary  appreciation  must  rapidly  combine 
into  a  common  impression.  The  perspective,  moreover,  of  the 
two  studies  is  different.  Deuteronomy  is  of  equal  importance  in 
history  and  in  literature.  But  if  a  modern  critical  work  treats 
Deuteronomy  it  will  be  found  that  perhaps  nine-tenths  of  the  dis- 
cussion is  concentrated  on  the  '  Book  of  the  Covenant,'  and  the 
perplexing  questions  arising  out  of  it :  a  paragraph  or  two  is 
deemed  sufficient  for  the  'hortatory  matter'  of  the  rest  of  the 
book.  In  the  other  treatment  it  appears  that  it  is  just  this  '  hor- 
tatory matter '  which  raises  Deuteronomy  to  a  foremost  rank  as 
one  of  the  world's  greatest  collections  of  orations ;  while  the 
fifteen  chapters  containing  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  here  sink  to 
the  subordinate  place  of  a  document  cited  in  an  oration.  It  is  for 
the  interest  of  accuracy  in  both  studies  that  their  procedures  be 
kept  distinct. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  go  a  step  further  than  this.     His- 


PREFACE  ix 

toric  and  literary  study  are  equal  in  importance  :  but  for  priority 
in  order  of  time  the  literary  treatment  has  the  first  claim.  The 
reason  of  this  is  that  the  starting  point  of  historic  analysis  must  be 
that  very  existing  text,  which  is  the  sole  concern  of  the  morpho- 
logical study.  The  historic  inquirer  will  no  doubt  add  to  his  exam- 
ination of  the  text  light  drawn  from  other  sources  ;  he  may  be  led 
in  his  investigation  to  alter  or  rearrange  the  text;  but  he  will 
admit  that  the  most  important  single  element  on  which  he  has  to 
work  is  the  text  as  it  has  come  down  to  us.  But,  if  the  foundation 
principle  of  literary  study  be  true,  this  existing  text  cannot  be 
truly  interpreted  until  it  has  been  read  in  the  light  of  its  exact 
literary  structure.  In  actual  fact,  it  appears  to  me,  Biblical  criti- 
cism at  the  present  time  is,  not  unfrequently,  vitiated  in  its  histor- 
ical contentions  by  tacit  assumptions  as  to  the  form  of  the  text 
such  as  literary  examination  might  have  corrected. 

I  will  take  a  typical  example.  In  the  latter  part  of  our  Book  of 
Micah  a  group  of  verses  (vii.  7-10)  must  strike  even  a  casual 
reader  by  their  buoyancy  of  tone,  so  sharply  contrasting  with  what 
has  gone  before.  Accordingly  Wellhausen  sees  in  this  changed 
tone  evidence  of  a  new  composition,  product  of  an  age  different 
in  spirit  from  the  age  of  the  prophet :  "  between  v.  6  and  v.  7 
there  yawns  a  century."  What  really  yawns  between  the  verses  is 
simply  a  change  of  speakers.  The  latter  part  of  Micah  is  dra- 
matic, and  a  reader  attentive  to  literary  form  cannot  fail  to  note  a 
distinct  dramatic  composition  introduced  by  the  title-verse  (vi.  9)  : 
"  The  voice  of  the  LORD  crieth  unto  the  city,  and  the  man  of  wis- 
dom will  see  thy  name."  The  latter  part  of  this  title  —  "and  the 
man  of  wisdom  will  see  thy  name  "  —  prepares  us  to  expect  an 
addition  in  the  '  Man  of  Wisdom '  to  the  usual  dramatis  persona 
of  prophetic  dramas,  which  include  such  as  God,  the  Prophet,  the 
Guilty  Nation.  All  that  follows  the  title-verse  bears  out  what  it 
suggests.  Verses  10-16  are  the  words  of  God  crying  denunciation 
and  threatening.  Then  the  first  six  verses  of  chapter  seven  voice 
the  woe  of  the  Guilty  City.  At  this  point  the  Man  of  Wisdom 
speaks,  and  the  disputed  verses  change  the  tone  to  convey  the 


X  PREFACE 

happy  confidence  of  one  on  whose  side  the  divine  intervention  is 
to  take  place : 

But  as  for  me,  I  will  look  unto  the  LORD;  I  will  wait  for  the  God  of 
my  salvation :  my  God  will  hear  me.  Rejoice  not  against  me,  O 
mine  enemy :  when  I  fall,  I  shall  arise,  etc. 

I  submit  that  in  this  case  a  mistaken  historical  judgment  has  been 
formed  by  a  distinguished  historian  for  want  of  that  preliminary 
literary  analysis  of  the  text  for  which  I  am  contending. 

Historic  errors  based  on  the  ignoring  of  literary  structure  may 
similarly  be  instanced  from  the  popular  opponents  of  modern  crit- 
icism. There  is  hardly  any  point  on  which  formal  criticism  is 
more  unanimous  than  on  the  late  date  of  Ecclesiastes :  here  all 
kinds  of  internal  evidence  by  which  such  questions  are  examined 
combine  in  pointing  to  a  date  centuries  later  than  that  of  the  his- 
torical Solomon.  Notwithstanding  this,  intelligent  lay  readers  are 
slow  to  surrender  the  old  tradition,  and  for  a  reason  which  must 
be  received  with  respect :  the  book,  they  say,  in  unequivocal  terms 
claims  the  historical  Solomon  for  its  author,  and  it  seems  to  them 
preferable  to  suppose  that  circumstantial  evidence  may  sometimes 
be  misleading,  rather  than  that  a  work  of  the  solemnity  of  Ecclesi- 
astes should  put  itself  forward  under  false  pretences.  This  critical 
deadlock  rests  simply  on  the  circumstance  that  both  parties  have 
neglected  the  preliminary  step  of  literary  analysis,  and  have  tacitly 
assumed  that  the  true  form  of  the  book  was  that  unbroken  con- 
tinuity in  which  nearly  all  Hebrew  literature  has  been  left  by  the 
unliterary  tradition  through  which  it  has  come  down  to  us.  When 
the  structure  of  Ecclesiastes  is  strictly  examined  it  is  found  to  be  a 
series  of  five  independent  Essays,  separated  (according  to  a  regu- 
lar practice  in  Wisdom  writings)  by  strings  of  disconnected  brevi- 
ties, and  further  bound  into  a  unity  by  a  prologue  and  epilogue. 
The  book  being  before  us  in  its  true  literary  form  we  are  now  in  a 
position  to  ask,  Does  it  claim  the  authorship  of  King  Solomon? 
We  look  at  the  prologue  and  epilogue  —  the  most  natural  places 
in  which  to  find  indications  of  authorship  :  and  here  there  is  not  a 


PREFACE  xi 

mention  of  Solomon  or  any  suggestion  of  his  personality.  The 
disconnected  brevities  are  examined  :  there  is  no  trace  of  Solo- 
mon, and  much  that  is  totally  unlike  a  royal  speaker.  Four  out 
of  the  five  essays  are  equally  blank  as  to  evidence  of  this  or  other 
authorship.  Only  one  single  essay  out  of  the  five  connects  itself 
with  Solomon ;  and  when  the  matter  of  this  essay  is  examined  it  is 
seen  to  take  the  form  of  an  imaginary  experiment,  in  the  investi- 
gation of  wealth,  wisdom  and  power,  put  into  the  mouth  of  Solo- 
mon as  the  one  character  in  history  for  whom  such  an  experiment 
was  possible.  When  the  author  —  or  '  preacher '  —  has  finished 
with  this  experimental  search  for  wisdom  he  drops  altogether  the 
personality  of  Solomon,  and  speaks  for  himself.  All  claim  to 
Solomonic  authorship  disappears  from  Ecclesiastes  when  it  is  read 
in  its  true  literary  structure ;  and  the  lay  reader  may  open  his 
mind  to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  critical  evidence  in  favour  of 
a  later  date. 

Examples  such  as  these  illustrate,  not  merely  the  immediate 
point,  that  structural  should  precede  all  other  analysis,  but  also 
my  general  contention  for  the  separation  and  independence  of 
historical  and  literary  investigation.  The  history  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  is  a  branch  of  Semitic  studies ;  the  discrimination  of 
their  literary  forms  belongs  to  the  science  of  Comparative  Litera- 
ture. The  confusion  between  these  two  distinct  spheres  has  ap- 
peared at  other  periods  besides  the  present,  and  in  relation  to 
other  departments  of  the  literary  field.  When  the  Romantic 
Drama,  that  was  destined  to  produce  a  Shakespeare,  was  slowly 
establishing  itself,  the  force  which  opposed  it,  and  pronounced  it 
a  violation  of  all  literary  art,  came  from  the  scholarship  of  the 
age.  But  it  was  Classical  scholarship,  drawing  its  conceptions  and 
canons  exclusively  from  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  Time  was 
necessary  before  the  irresistible  power  of  Shakespeare  and  his 
contemporaries  widened  the  field  of  view,  and  forced  upon  criti- 
cism so  much  of  the  comparative  method  as  led  them  to  recognise 
a  new  region  of  literary  form,  equally  worthy  of  investigation  with 
the  older  Classical  types.  Not  less  important  and  original  will  be 


xii  PREFACE 

found  the  varieties  of  literary  form  yielded  by  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, when  these  are  investigated  in  the  spirit  of  Comparative 
Literature. 

I  have  spoken  so  far  from  the  point  of  view  of  those  who  are 
specially  Bible  students.  But  a  consideration  of  a  different  kind 
has  had  weight  with  me  in  the  production  of  this  book  :  the  place 
in  liberal  education  of  the  Bible  treated  as  literature.  It  has  come 
by  now  to  be  generally  recognised  that  the  Classics  of  Greece  and 
Rome  stand  to  us  in  the  position  of  an  ancestral  literature,  —  the 
inspiration  of  our  great  masters,  and  bond  of  common  associations 
between  our  poets  and  their  readers.  But  does  not  such  a  posi- 
tion belong  equally  to  the  literature  of  the  Bible  ?  if  our  intellect 
and  imagination  have  been  formed  by  the  Greeks,  have  we  not 
in  similar  fashion  drawn  our  moral  and  emotional  training  from 
Hebrew  thought?  Whence  then  the  neglect  of  the  Bible  in  our 
higher  schools  and  colleges?  It  is  one  of  the  curiosities  of  our 
civilisation  that  we  are  content  to  go  for  our  liberal  education  to 
literatures  which,  morally,  are  at  an  opposite  pole  from  ourselves  : 
literatures  in  which  the  most  exalted  tone  is  often  an  apotheosis 
of  the  sensuous,  which  degrade  divinity,  not  only  to  the  human 
level,  but  to  the  lowest  level  of  humanity.  Our  hardest  social 
problem  being  temperance,  we  study  in  Greek  the  glorification  of 
intoxication ;  while  in  mature  life  we  are  occupied  in  tracing  law 
to  the  remotest  corner  of  the  universe,  we  go  at  school  for  literary 
impulse  to  the  poetry  that  dramatises  the  burden  of  hopeless  fate. 
Our  highest  politics  aim  at  conserving  the  arts  of  peace,  our  first 
poetic  lessons  are  in  an  Iliad  that  cannot  be  appreciated  without  a 
bloodthirsty  joy  in  killing.  We  seek  to  form  a  character  in  which 
delicacy  and  reserve  shall  be  supreme,  and  at  the  same  time  are 
training  our  taste  in  literatures  which,  if  published  as  English 
books,  would  be  seized  by  the  police.  I  recall  these  paradoxes, 
not  to  make  objection,  but  to  suggest  the  reasonableness  of  the 
claim  that  the  one  side  of  our  liberal  education  should  have 
another  side  to  balance  it.  Prudish  fears  may  be  unwise,  but 


PREFACE  xiii 

there  is  no  need  to  put  an  embargo  upon  decency.  It  is  surely 
good  that  our  youth,  during  the  formative  period,  should  have 
displayed  to  them,  in  a  literary  dress  as  brilliant  as  that  of  Greek 
literature  —  in  lyrics  which  Pindar  cannot  surpass,  in  rhetoric 
as  forcible  as  that  of  Demosthenes,  or  contemplative  prose  not 
inferior  to  Plato's  —  a  people  dominated  by  an  utter  passion  for 
righteousness,  a  people  whom  ideas  of  purity,  of  infinite  good,  of 
universal  order,  of  faith  in  the  irresistible  downfall  of  all  moral 
evil,  moved  to  a  poetic  passion  as  fervid,  and  speech  as  musical, 
as  when  Sappho  sang  of  love  or  ^Eschylus  thundered  his  deep 
notes  of  destiny.  When  it  is  added  that  the  familiarity  of  the 
English  Bible  renders  all  this  possible  without  the  demand  upon 
the  time-table  that  would  be  involved  in  the  learning  of  another 
language,  it  seems  clear  that  our  school  and  college  curricula  will 
not  have  shaken  off  their  mediaeval  narrowness  and  renaissance 
paganism  until  Classical  and  Biblical  literatures  stand  side  by  side 
as  sources  of  our  highest  culture. 

It  remains  to  add  that,  in  the  present  edition,  the  work  has 
been  revised,  and  partly  re-written.  The  structural  printing  of 
Scripture,  for  which  I  contended  in  the  first  edition,  has  since 
been  carried  into  effect  in  the  volumes  of  the  Modern  Reader's 
Bible.1  This  has  enabled  me  to  reduce  some  of  my  lengthier  illus- 
trations ;  and  also  to  be  more  precise  in  part  of  my  systematisa- 
tion.  In  particular,  I  have  attempted  in  a  new  Appendix  (III) 
to  reduce  to  a  system  Biblical  Versification,  with  all  its  elabora- 
tions, so  far  as  it  is  based  upon  parallelism  of  structure.  The 
other  Appendices,  that  which  I  call  a  Literary  Index  to  the  Bible 
(I),  and  another  which  contains  a  technical  Table  of  Literary 
Forms  (II),  have  been  considerably  revised.  The  order  of  the 
six  books  has  been  altered,  and  the  matter  of  the  first  two  books 
recast,  chiefly  in  the  interest  of  a  more  logical  plan.  As  so  much 
recasting  might  create  difficulties  in  regard  to  references  made  in 
other  books  to  the  present  work,  I  have  (page  557)  given  a  Refer- 
1  Published  by  Macmillan. 


xiv  PREFACE 

ence  Table  which  connects  the  paging  of  the  first  and  the  present 
editions.  The  citations,  as  before,  are  from  the  Revised  Version 
of  the  Bible  and  Apocrypha,  for  the  use  of  which  I  am  under  obli- 
gation to  the  University  Presses  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  It  is 
with  the  greatest  satisfaction  that  I  have  noticed,  in  the  four  years 
which  have  intervened  since  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  the  rapid 
advance  in  public  recognition  of  the  specially  literary  study  of  the 
Bible.  And  the  testimony  of  all  who  promote  it  concurs  in  con- 
firming what  is  the  foundation  axiom  of  my  work  —  that  an 
increased  apprehension  of  outer  literary  form  is  a  sure  means 
of  deepening  spiritual  effect. 

RICHARD   G.   MOULTON. 
June,  1899. 


References 

See  page  557  for  a  Table  connecting  the  paging  of  this  and  of 
the  First  Edition. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

THE  BOOK  OF  JOB  :  AND  THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  LITERARY  INTEREST 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  IT 3 

BOOK  FIRST 
FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

CHAPTER 

I.    THE  FUNDAMENTAL  LITERARY  FORM  OF  VERSIFICATION  AS 

SEEN   IN  THE  BlBLE  .  .          .  .          .  .  •        45 

II.    THE  LOWER  PARALLELISM  OF  RHYTHM  AND  THE  HIGHER 

PARALLELISM  OF  INTERPRETATION 64 

III.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  HIGHER  LITERARY  FORMS  IN  UNI- 

VERSAL LITERATURE         .       .       .       .       .        .        .      74 

IV.  APPLICATION  OF  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  TO  BIBLICAL  LIT- 

ERATURE    83 

BOOK  SECOND 
LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

V.    THE  BIBLICAL  ODE 133 

VI.    SONGS,  ELEGIES,  AND  MEDITATIONS 158 

VII.    MONODIES,  DRAMATIC  LYRICS,  AND  RITUAL  PSALMS     .       .  181 

VIII.    LYRIC  IDYL:  'SOLOMON'S  SONG' 207 

BOOK  THIRD 
BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

IX.    EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE ,       .    227 

X.    BIBLICAL  HISTORY  IN  ITS  RELATION  WITH  BIBLICAL  EPIC    .    250 

XV 


CONTENTS 


BOOK  FOURTH 
THE  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  RHETORIC 

CHAPTER 

XI.    THE  EPISTLES:  OR  WRITTEN  RHETORIC 
XII.    SPOKEN  RHETORIC:  AND  THE  'BOOK  OF  DEUTERONOMY' 

BOOK  FIFTH 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE,    OR  WISDOM 
LITERATURE 

XIII.  FORMS  OF  WISDOM  LITERATURE 

XIV.  THE  SACRED  BOOKS  OF  WISDOM 

XV.    'THE  WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON' 


BOOK  SIXTH 
BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

XVI.  FORMS  OF  PROPHETIC  LITERATURE         .... 

XVII.  FORMS  OF  PROPHETIC  LITERATURE:  THE  DOOM  SONG  . 

XVIII.  FORMS  OF  PROPHETIC  LITERATURE:  THE  RHAPSODY     . 

XIX.  THE  RHAPSODY  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED  '  [Isaiah  xl-lxvi] 

XX.  THE  WORKS  OF  THE  PROPHETS 


FACE 
263 

268 


289 


363 
39° 
404 

435 
457 


I. 
II. 
III. 
IV. 


APPENDICES 

LITERARY  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE 479 

TABLES  OF  LITERARY  FORMS 513 

A  METRICAL  SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL  VERSE      ....  526 
A  REFERENCE  TABLE  TO  CONNECT  THE  PAGES  OF  THE  FIRST 

AND  SECOND  EDITIONS 557 


GENERAL  INDEX 561 


INTRODUCTION 


THE  BOOK  OF  JOB:  AND  THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF 
LITERARY   INTEREST   ILLUSTRATED  BY  IT 


INTRODUCTION 


THE  story  in  the  Book  of  Job  opens  by  telling  how  there  was  a 
man  in  the  land  of  Uz  whose  name  was  Job ;  how  he  was  perfect 
and  upright,  a  man  that  feared  God  and  eschewed  Bookof  job. 
evil.     It  tells  of  his  great  substance  in  sheep  and  The  story  opens 
camels  and  oxen,  and  how  he  was  the  greatest  of  ij " 
all  the  children  of  the  east.     Then  it  speaks   of  his  seven  sons 
and  three  daughters,  and  describes  their  joyous  family  life.     And  so 
scrupulous  was  the  piety  of  Job  that,  when  his  sons  and  daughters 
had  concluded  a  round  of  feastings  at  one  another's  houses,  Job 
rose  early  and  sanctified  them,  lest  perchance  in  their  gaiety  they 
had  offended  God. 

Then  the  story  passes  to  a  Council  in  Heaven,  at  which  the 
sons  of  God  came,  each  from  his  several  province,  to  present 
themselves  before  the  Lord ;  and  amongst  them  came  the  Adver- 
sary from  his  sphere  of  inspection,  the  Earth.  He  in  his  turn 
was  questioned  as  to  his  charge,  and  Job  was  instanced  by  the 
Lord  as  a  type  of  human  perfection.  But  the  Adversary,  as  his 
office  was,  began  to  raise  doubts  as  to  this  perfection.  God  had 
made  a  hedge  of  prosperity  about  the  man :  if  he  were  to  put 
forth  his  hand,  and  destroy  all  at  a  stroke,  Job  might  yet  renounce 
his  worship. 

The  Lord  gave  consent  for  this  experiment  to  be  made.  So  it 
came  about  that  in  the  midst  of  Job's  prosperity  there  came  a 
messenger  to  him  and  said  : 

3 


4  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  oxen  were  plowing, 
and  the  asses  feeding  beside  them  ; 
and  the  Sabeans  fell  upon  them 

and  took  them  away ; 

yea,  they  have  slain  the  servants  with  the  edge  of  the  sword ; 
and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee  ! 

While  he  was  yet  speaking  there  came  also  another,  and  said : 

The  fire  of  God  is  fallen  from  heaven, 
and  hath  burned  up  the  sheep,  and  the  servants, 

and  consumed  them ; 
and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee ! 

While  he  was  yet  speaking  there  came  also  another,  and  said : 

The  Chaldeans  made  three  bands, 

and  fell  upon  the  camels, 
and  have  taken  them  away, 

yea,  and  slain  the  servants  with  the  edge  of  the  sword ; 
and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee  ! 

While  he  was  yet  speaking  there  came  also  another,  and  said : 

Thy  sons  and  thy  daughters 
were  eating  and  drinking  wine  in  their  eldest  brother's  house ; 

and  behold, 

there  came  a  great  wind  from  the  wilderness, 

and  smote  the  four  corners  of  the  house, 

and  it  fell  upon  the  young  men, 

and  they  are  dead ; 
and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee  ! 

Then  Job  arose,  and  rent  his  mantle,  and  shaved  his  head,  and 
fell  down  upon  the  ground,  and  worshipped ;  and  he  said  : 

Naked  came  I  out  of  my  mother's  womb, 
And  naked  shall  I  return  thither  ! 

The  LORD  gave,  and  the  LORD  hath  taken  away  : 
Blessed  be  the  Name  of  the  LORD  ! 


INTRODUCTION  5 

So  the  experiment  of  the  Adversary  was  over,  and  Job  had  not 
fallen  into  sin. 

A  second  Council  in  Heaven  followed,  and  a  second  time  came 
the  sons  of  God,  and  the  Adversary  among  them,  and  made  their 
reports.  When  the  Lord  triumphed  in  the  matter  of  Job,  that  he 
still  retained  his  integrity  notwithstanding  the  destruction  done  to 
him,  the  Adversary  did  honour  to  the  goodness  of  the  man  by 
suggesting  a  yet  severer  test : 

Skin  for  skin,  yea,  all  that  a  man  hath  will  he  give  for  his  life.  But 
put  forth  thine  hand  now,  and  touch  his  bone  and  his  flesh,  and  he 
will  renounce  thee  to  thy  face. 

Even  in  this  case  the  Almighty  had  no  fear  for  his  servant.  So 
the  Adversary  went  forth,  and  smote  Job  with  sore  boils  from  the 
sole  of  his  foot  unto  his  crown.  And  Job  silently  passed  out,  as 
one  unclean,  and  crept  up  the  ash-mound,  and  there  he  sat  and 
suffered  ;  until  his  good  wife  —  who  had  uttered  no  word  of  com- 
plaint when  all  the  substance,  was  swallowed  up  and  her  children 
perished  —  broke  down  in  the  presence  of  this  helpless  pain  : 

Dost  thou  still  hold  fast  thine  integrity?  renounce  God,  and  die! 
But  Job  rebuked  this  momentary  lapse  from  her  wisdom  : 

What?  shall  we  receive  good  at  the  hand  of  God,  and  shall  we  not 
receive  evil? 

So  the  second  experiment  was  over,  and  still  Job  sinned  not  with 
his  lips. 

But  a  third  trial  awaited  Job,  which  needed  no  Council  in 
Heaven  to  decree  it,  —  the  trial  of  time.  Day  followed  day,  but 
no  relief  came  ;  and  Job  sat  patiently  on  the  ash-mound,  an  out- 
cast and  unclean.  And  gradually  a  reverence  grew  about  the 
silent  sufferer  :  the  children  no  longer  jostled  him  as  they  sported 
to  and  fro,  and  groups  of  sympathising  spectators  would  gather 
about  the  mound  to  gaze  for  a  while  on  the  fallen  child  of  the 
east.  And  the  travellers  as  they  passed  by  the  way  smote  on 


6  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

their  breasts  at  the  sight ;  and  they  made  a  token  of  it,  and 
carried  the  news  into  distant  countries,  until  it  reached  the  ears 
of  Job's  three  Friends,  all  of  them  great  chieftains  like  himself: 
the  stately  Eliphaz  the  Temanite,  and  Bildad  the  sturdy  Shuhite, 
and  Zophar  the  Naamathite,  with  his  venerable  grey  hairs.  These 
three  made  an  appointment  together  to  visit  Job ;  and,  when  they 
came  in  sight  of  him,  with  one  accord  they  lifted  up  their  voices 
and  wept.  And  the  crowd  of  spectators  made  way  for  the  great 
men  to  ascend  the  mound ;  and  they  sat  down  upon  the  ground 
opposite  Job.  Day  after  day  they  took  their  station  there,  yet 
they  could  only  weep  with  their  friend ;  for,  though  they  longed 
to  speak,  their  utter  courtesy  forbade  them  to  disturb  the  majesty 
of  that  silent  suffering. 

At  last  it  was  Job  himself  who  broke  the  long  silence,  in  order 
to  curse,  not  God,  but  his  own  life.  And  at  this  point  the  intro- 
ductory story  in  which  the  poem  is  framed  begins  to  give  place  to 
dialogue ;  but  not  before  the  introduction  has  made  its  contribu- 

(Probiemofthe  tion  to  the  general  argument.  The  topic  of  the 
poem  and  First  whole  book  is  the  Mystery  of  Human  Suffering: 
•  the  introduction  has  suggested  a  First  Solution  of 
the  Mystery:  Suffering  presented  as  Heaven's  test  of  goodness ; 
the  test  being  made  the  severer  where  the  goodness  is  strong 
enough  to  stand  it. 

Job  opened  his  mouth,  and  cursed  the  day  of  his  birth.  Would 
that  it  might  be  blotted  from  among  the  days  of  the  year,  that  the 

cloud,  and  the  thick  darkness,  and  the  shadow  of 
iii  death,  and  all  the  degrees  of  blackness  might  seize 

it  for  their  own  !  If  the  best  of  all  gifts  —  never  to 
have  existed  —  must  be  denied  him,  why  might  not  that  day  of 
his  birth  have  also  brought  to  him  the  Grave,  and  the  long  quiet 
sleep  with  the  stately  dead,  and  with  the  wicked  and  the  weary, 
the  prisoner  and  his  task-master,  the  small  and  the  great,  all  at 
their  ease  together  ?  Why  should  life  be  forced  upon  the  bitter 
in  soul? 


INTRODUCTION  7 

In  these  later  thoughts  Job  seems  to  reflect  upon  the  order  of 
God's  providence  :   he  must  be  checked,  and  yet  gently ;   and 

Eliphaz  takes  this  task  upon  himself.     He  dreads 

.      -  .  ...       The  Dramatic 

to  give  pain  to  his  friend,  yet  how  can  he  refrain  Dialogue 

from  speaking,  and  laying  down  to  Job  the  foun-  First  Cycle 

iv-xiv 
dations  of  hope  and  fear  with  which  Job  himself 

has  so  often  comforted  the  afflicted  ? 

Now  a  thing  was  secretly  brought  to  me, 
And  mine  ear  received  a  whisper  thereof: 

In  thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the  night, 

When  deep  sleep  falleth  on  men, 

Fear  came  upon  me,  and  trembling, 

Which  made  all  my  bones  to  shake. 

Then  a  spirit  passed  before  my  face; 

The  hair  of  my  flesh  stood  up. 

It  stood  still,  but  I  could  not  discern  the  appearance  thereof ; 

A  form  was  before  mine  eyes : 

There  was  silence,  and  I  heard  a  voice,  saying, 

"  Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God  ? 
Shall  a  man  be  more  pure  than  his  Maker  ?  " 

With  the  awful  solemnity  of  this  vision  Eliphaz  enforces  the  view 
which  the  three  Friends  maintain  throughout  the  discussion,  and 
which  is  put  forward  as  a  Second  Solution  of  the  Problem :  The 
very  righteousness  of  God  (they  think)  is  involved  in  the  doctrine 
that  all  Suffering  is  a  judgment  upon  Sin.  Affliction,  says  Eliphaz, 
does  not  spring  up  of  itself  like  the  grass,  but  it  is  they  who  have 
sown  trouble  that  reap  the  same.  But  he  puts  the  doctrine  gently, 
as  constituting  so  much  hope  for  Job :  when  the  sinner  has  once 
sought  unto  God  he  will  find  what  great  and  unsearchable 
wonders  God  doeth.  Then  happy  will  have  been  the  chastening 
of  the  Almighty,  for  if  he  maketh  sore  he  bindeth  up. 

He  shall  deliver  thee  in  six  troubles; 

Yea,  in  seven  there  shall  no  evil  touch  thee. 

In  famine  he  shall  redeem  thee  from  death; 

And  in  war  from  the  power  of  the  sword. 

Thou  shall  be  hid  from  the  scourge  of  the  tongue; 


8  LITERARY  STUDY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

Neither  shall  thou  be  afraid  of  destruction  when  it  cometh. 

At  destruction  and  dearth  thou  shalt  laugh  : 

Neither  shalt  thou  be  afraid  of  the  beasts  of  the  earth. 

For  thou  shalt  be  in  league  with  the  stones  of  the  field; 

And  the  beasts  of  the  field  shall  be  at  peace  with  thee. 

And  thou  shalt  know  that  thy  tent  is  in  peace; 

And  thou  shalt  visit  thy  fold  and  shalt  miss  nothing. 

Thou  shalt  know  also  that  thy  seed  shall  be  great, 

And  thine  offspring  as  the  grass  of  the  earth. 

Thou  shalt  come  to  thy  grave  in  a  full  age, 

Like  as  a  shock  of  corn  cometh  in  in  its  season. 
Lo  this,  we  have  searched  it,  so  it  is; 
Hear  it,  and  know  thou  it  for  thy  good. 

Job  is  bitterly  disappointed  at  thus  meeting  reproof  where  he 
had  looked  for  consolation. 

My  brethren  have  dealt  deceitfully  as  a  brook, 

As  the  channel  of  brooks  that  pass  away ; 

Which  are  black  by  reason  of  the  ice, 

And  wherein  the  snow  hideth  itself  : 

What  time  they  wax  warm,  they  vanish : 

When  it  is  hot,  they  are  consumed  out  of  their  place. 

The  paths  of  their  way  are  turned  aside, 

They  go  up  into  the  waste  and  perish. 

The  caravans  of  Tema  looked, 

The  companies  of  Sheba  waited  for  them. 

They  were  ashamed  because  they  had  hoped ; 

They  came  thither  and  were  confounded. 

The  comfort  Job  longs  for  is  the  crushing  pain  that  would  cut 
him  off  altogether.  And  has  he  not  a  right  to  look  for  it  ?  Is  not 
man's  life  a  warfare  for  a  limited  time  ? 

As  a  servant  that  earnestly  desireth  the  shadow, 
And  as  an  hireling  that  looketh  for  his  wages, 

so  Job  passes  his  wearisome  nights  and  months  of  vanity. 

If  I  have  sinned,  what  can  I  do  unto  thee, 
O  thou  watcher  of  men  ? 
Why  hast  thou  set  me  as  a  mark  for  thee, 
So  that  I  am  a  burden  to  myself  ? 


INTRODUCTION  9 

And  why  dost  thou  not  pardon  my  transgression, 

And  take  away  mine  iniquity  ? 

For  now  shall  I  lie  down  in  the  dust ; 

And  thou  shalt  seek  me  diligently, 

But  I  shall  not  be  ! 

Job  never  claims  to  be  sinless,  but  he  knows  that  no  sin  of  his 
can  be  proportionate  to  the  total  ruin  that  has  fallen  upon  him. 
But  this  does  not  satisfy  the  second  speaker. 

Doth  God  pervert  judgement  ? 

Or  doth  the  Almighty  pervert  justice  ? 

Will  not  Job  disentangle  himself  from  the  transgression  which  has 
already  found  victims  in  his  children  ?  For  so  surely  as  the  flag 
cannot  grow  without  water :  though  it  be  green  and  spreading 
above,  with  roots  wrapped  round  and  round  its  solid  bed,  yet  it 
perishes  as  if  it  had  never  been  seen :  so  surely  God  will  not 
uphold  the  evil-doer.  But  neither  will  God  cast  away  a  perfect 

man. 

He  will  yet  fill  thy  mouth  with  laughter, 
And  thy  lips  with  shouting. 

They  that  hate  thee  shall  be  clothed  with  shame, 
And  the  tent  of  the  wicked  shall  be  no  more. 

Job  knows  of  a  truth  that  it  is  so.     Yet  how  can  a  man  be  just 

with  God : 

Which  removeth  the  mountains,  and  they  know  it  not, 

When  he  overturneth  them  in  his  anger. 

Which  shaketh  the  earth  out  of  her  place, 

And  the  pillars  thereof  tremble. 

Which  commandeth  the  sun,  and  it  riseth  not ; 

And  sealeth  up  the  stars. 

What  answer  but  supplication  is  possible  before  that  overpower- 
ing Strength?  a  Strength  that  can  destroy  both  the  perfect  and 
the  wicked  alike :  for  if  it  be  not  God  who  does  this,  who  is  it  ? 
Certain  it  is  that  the  earth  is  given  into  the  hand  of  the  wicked. 
However  innocent  the  accused  may  be,  before  that  Strength  his 
own  mouth  would  condemn  him. 


10  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

If  I  wash  myself  with  snow  water, 

And  make  my  hands  never  so  clean  : 

Yet  wilt  thou  plunge  me  in  the  ditch, 

And  mine  own  clothes  shall  abhor  me. 

For  he  is  not  a  man,  as  I  am,  that  I  should  answer  him, 

That  we  should  come  together  in  judgement ; 

There  is  no  daysman  betwixt  us, 

That  might  lay  his  hand  upon  us  both. 

And  Job  appeals  to  God  himself  against  this  oppression  of  his 
own  handiwork. 

Thine  hands  have  framed  me 

And  fashioned  me  together  round  about ; 

Yet  thou  dost  destroy  me. 
Remember,  I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  fashioned  me  as  clay ; 

And  wilt  thou  bring  me  into  dust  again  ? 
Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  as  milk, 
And  curdled  me  like  cheese  ? 
Thou  hast  clothed  me  with  skin  and  flesh, 
And  knit  me  together  with  bones  and  sinews. 

It  is  but  a  small  boon  that  the  creature  asks  of  his  Creator :  that 
he  may  be  let  alone  for  a  brief  space  — 

Before  I  go  whence  I  shall  not  return  : 

Even  to  the  land  of  darkness  and  of  the  shadow  of  death  : 
A  land  of  thick  darkness,  as  darkness  itself; 
A  land  of  the  shadow  of  death,  without  any  order, 
And  where  the  light  is  as  darkness. 

Zophar  is  deeply  shocked  at  a  spectacle  he  has  never  beheld  in 
all  his  long  life,  —  a  good  man  questioning  a  visible  judgment  of 

God. 

Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God  ? 

Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty  unto  perfection  ? 

It  is  high  as  heaven ; 

What  canst  thou  do  ? 

Deeper  than  Sheol ; 

What  canst  thou  know  ? 

The  measure  thereof  is  longer  than  the  earth, 

And  broader  than  the  sea. 


INTRODUCTION  11 

There  is  no  course  for  Job  but  to  set  his  heart  aright,  and  put 
iniquity  far  away ;  then  shall  he  again  lift  up  a  spotless  countenance 
before  God. 

For  thou  shalt  forget  thy  misery ; 

Thou  shalt  remember  it  as  waters  that  are  passed  away  : 

And  thy  life  shall  be  clearer  than  the  noonday  ; 

Though  there  be  darkness,  it  shall  be  as  the  morning. 

Before  the  persistent  dogmatism  of  the  three  Friends  Job  loses 
more  and  more  the  patience  which  had  stood  the  shocks  of  the 

Adversary. 

No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people, 
And  wisdom  shall  die  with  you. 

But  I  have  understanding  as  well  as  you ; 

I  am  not  inferior  to  you  : 

Yea,  who  knoweth  not  such  things  as  these  ? 

The  just  man  is  made  a  laughing-stock,  and  the  tents  of  robbers 
prosper :  and  yet  the  very  beasts  of  the  field  can  tell  the  inquirer 
that  the  hand  of  the  Lord  is  responsible  for  every  breath  of  every 
living  thing.  What,  do  the  Friends  stand  forth  as  representatives 
of  Wisdom  ?  Nay, 

With  HIM  is  wisdom  and  might; 
He  hath  counsel  and  understanding. 

Priests  and  counsellors  spoiled,  kings  bound  and  unbound,  the 
mighty  overthrown,  speech  reft  from  the  trusty,  and  understanding 
from  the  elders,  contempt  poured  upon  princes,  and  the  belt  of 
the  strong  loosed  :  these  declare  the  Wisdom  to  which  alone  Job 
will  appeal.  Will  the  Friends  lie  on  God's  behalf?  Will  they  be 
partial  advocates  in  his  cause  ? 

Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  wait  for  him  : 
Nevertheless  I  will  maintain  my  ways  before  him. 

Job  appeals  to  God  against  God's  own  dealings,  and  never  doubts 
the  issue  of  his  appeal.  And  yet  he  is  so  feeble  to  plead  his  cause  : 
a  driven  leaf,  a  fettered  prisoner,  a  moth-eaten  rag !  And  the 
time  left  for  his  vindication  is  so  short ! 


12  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Man  that  is  born  of  a  woman 

Is  of  few  days,  and  full  of  trouble  ; 

He  cometh  forth  like  a  flower,  and  is  cut  down, 

He  fleeth  also  as  a  shadow  and  continueth  not. 

For  there  is  hope  of  a  tree,  if  it  be  cut  down, 

That  it  will  sprout  again, 

And  that  the  tender  branch  thereof  will  not  cease ; 

Though  the  root  thereof  wax  old  in  the  earth, 
And  the  stock  thereof  die  in  the  ground, 
Yet  through  the  scent  of  water  it  will  bud, 
And  put  forth  boughs  like  a  plant. 

But  man  dieth,  and  wasteth  away  : 

Yea,  man  giveth  up  the  ghost,  and  where  is  he  ? 

As  the  waters  fail  from  the  sea, 

And  the  river  decayeth  and  drieth  up, 

So  man  lieth  down  and  riseth  not ; 

Till  the  heavens  be  no  more,  they  shall  not  awake, 

Nor  be  roused  out  of  their  sleep. 

A  strange  fancy  plays  for  a  moment  with  the  emotions  of  the 
sufferer,  —  a  fancy  that  the  Grave  itself  might  be  sweet,  if  only 
there  might  come  the  vindication  beyond  it. 

Oh  that  thou  wouldest  hide  me  in  Sheol, 

That  thou  wouldest  keep  me  secret,  until  thy  wrath  be  past, 

That  thou  wouldest  appoint  me  a  set  time,  and  remember  me ! 

—  If  a  man  die,  shall  he  live  again  ?  — 

All  the  days  of  my  warfkre  would  I  wait,  till  my  release  should  come ; 

Thou  shouldest  call,  and  I  would  answer  thee  : 

Thou  wouldest  have  a  desire  to  the  work  of  thine  hands. 

But  Job  dismisses  the  thought  as  vain. 

Surely  the  mountain  falling  cometh  to  nought, 

And  the  rock  is  removed  out  of  its  place, 

The  waters  wear  the  stones, 

The  overflowings  thereof  wash  away  the  dust  of  the  earth  : 

And  thou  destroyest  the  hope  of  man  : 


INTRODUCTION  13 

Thou  prevailest  for  ever  against  him,  and  he  passeth ; 

Thou  changest  his  countenance,  and  sendest  him  away ; 

His  sons  come  to  honour,  and  he  knoweth  it  not ; 

And  they  are  brought  low,  but  he  perceiveth  it  not  of  them ; 

Only. for  himself  his  flesh  hath  pain, 

And  for  himself  his  soul  mourneth. 

It  has  come  to  the  turn  of  Eliphaz  again  to  speak :    he  is 
shocked  that  Job  should  resist  the  united  appeals  second  Cycle 
of  his  Friends.  zv-m 

Art  thou  the  first  man  that  was  born  ? 

Or  wast  thou  brought  forth  before  the  hills  ? 
Hast  thou  heard  the  secret  counsel  of  God  ? 

And  dost  thou  restrain  wisdom  to  thyself  ? 

On  his  side,  Eliphaz  says,  and  perhaps  as  he  speaks  he  lays  his 
hand  upon  the  shoulder  of  Zophar,  are  the  aged  and  greyheaded, 
men  much  older  than  Job's  father.  Then  he  proceeds  to  formu- 
late again  the  doctrine  of  the  unfailing  judgment  upon  sin,  a  judg- 
ment never  so  certain  as  when  it  appears  for  the  time  to  be  delayed. 

The  wicked  man  travaileth  with  pain  all  his  days, 

Even  the  number  of  years  that  are  laid  up  for  the  oppressor. 

A  sound  of  terrors  is  in  his  ears  ; 

In  prosperity  the  spoiler  shall  come  upon  him  : 

He  believeth  not  that  he  shall  return  out  of  darkness, 

And  he  is  waited  for  of  the  sword. 

Job  cries  out  against  such  miserable  consolation  as  this  :  for  his 
comfort  he  will  go  to  a  very  different  source. 

O  earth,  cover  not  thou  my  blood, 
And  let  my  cry  have  no  resting-place. 
Even  now,  behold,  my  Witness  is  in  heaven, 
And  He  that  voucheth  for  me  is  on  high. 

But  once  more  the  certainty  of  an  ultimate  vindication  is  over- 
shadowed by  the  thought  of  the  rapidly  flitting  life. 


14  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

If  I  look  for  Sheol  as  mine  house; 

If  I  have  spread  my  couch  in  the  darkness; 

If  I  have  said  to  corruption,  Thou  art  my  father; 

To  the  worm,  Thou  art  my  mother,  and  my  sister; 

Where  then  is  my  hope? 

Bildad  rebukes  Job's  discomposure  of  manner. 

Thou  that  tearest  thyself  in  thine  anger, 

Shall  the  earth  be  forsaken  for  thee  ? 

Or  shall  the  rock  be  removed  out  of  its  place? 

He  sternly  reiterates  the  doctrine  of  judgment,  and  images  of 
doom  flow  freely.  Nets  and  toils  are  under  the  feet  of  the  sinner, 
gins  and  snares  are  all  about  him  ;  his  strength  is  hungerbitten  and 
the  firstborn  of  death  devours  his  members ;  brimstone  is  scattered 
upon  his  habitation;  Tie  is  driven  from  light  into  darkness  and 
chased  out  of  the  world. 

Such  reiteration  simply  drives  Job  to  stronger  and  stronger  self- 
assertion  :  in  set  terms  he  declares  that  God  subverteth  him  in  his 
cause,  and  denies  him  the  judgment  for  which  he  calls.  And 
God  has  removed  all  other  succour  from  him  :  his  kinsfolk  have 
failed  him,  his  acquaintance  are  estranged,  his  very  household 
look  upon  him  as  an  alien. 

Have  pity  upon  me,  have  pity  upon  me,  O  ye  my  friends, 
For  the  hand  of  God  hath  touched  me  ! 

But  the  weakness  of  a  moment  is  transformed  into  a  burst  of 
strength,  as  he  proceeds  to  lay  his  hopes  upon  a  help  from  above. 

Oh  that  my  words  were  now  written ! 
Oh  that  they  were  inscribed  in  a  book ! 
That  with  an  iron  pen  and  lead 
They  were  graven  in  the  rock  for  ever ! 

For  I  know  that  MY  VINDICATOR  LIVETH, 

And  that  he  shall  stand  up  at  the  last  upon  the  earth ; 

And  after  my  skin  hath  been  thus  destroyed, 

Yet  without  my  flesh  shall  I  see  God ! 

Whom  I  shall  see  on  my  side, 

And  mine  eyes  shall  behold,  and  not  another ! 


INTRODUCTION  15 

With  the  overpowering  emotions  called  up  by  this  thought  Job 
almost  faints : 

—  My  reins  are  consumed  within  me  — 

but  after  a  pause  he  recovers  himself,  and  is  able  to  bring  his 
speech  to  a  conclusion. 

Zophar  can  scarcely  wait  his  opportunity  for  speaking;  his 
thoughts  anticipate  his  words  on  the  favourite  topic. 

Knowest  thou  not  this  of  old  time, 

Since  man  was  placed  upon  earth, 
That  the  triumphing  of  the  wicked  is  short, 
And  the  joy  of  the  godless  but  for  a  moment? 

And  many  wise  saws  are  poured  forth  by  Zophar,  testifying  to  this 
mockery  of  the  sinner. 

His  children  shall  seek  the  favour  of  the  poor, 
And  his  hands  shall  give  back  his  wealth. 

His  bones  are  full  of  his  youth, 
But  it  shall  lie  down  with  him  in  the  dust.  .  .  . 
The  heavens  shall  reveal  his  iniquity 
And  the  earth  shall  rise  up  against  him. 

The  doctrine  thus  thrust  upon  him  again  and  again  Job  at  last 
begins  to  look  fairly  in  the  face ;  and  the  more  he  considers  it  the 
more  he  trembles  at  the  doubts  that  come  crowding  into  his  mind. 

How  oft  is  it  that  the  lamp  of  the  wicked  is  put  out  ? 

That  their  calamity  cometh  upon  them  ? 

That  God  distributeth  sorrows  in  his  anger  ? 

That  they  are  as  stubble  before  the  wind, 

And  as  chaff  that  the  storm  carrieth  away  ?  .  .  . 

One  dieth  in  his  full  strength, 

Being  wholly  at  ease  and  quiet : 

His  breasts  are  full  of  milk, 

And  the  marrow  of  his  bones  is  moistened. 

And  another  dieth  in  bitterness  of  soul, 

And  never  tasteth  of  good. 

They  lie  down  alike  in  the  dust, 

And  the  worm  covereth  them. 


16  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Eliphaz  will  not  notice  these  doubts  of  Job;  his  righteous 
indignation  with  his  friend  has  reached  a  climax, 
and  casting  restraint  aside  he  openly  accuses  Job 
of  sin. 

Thou  hast  taken  pledges  of  thy  brother  for  nought, 
And  stripped  the  naked  of  their  clothing. 
Thou  hast  not  given  water  to  the  weary  to  drink, 
And  thou  hast  withholden  bread  from  the  hungry. 

Therefore  has  trouble  come  upon  him :  but  there  is  yet  a  place 
for  repentance.  If  Job  will  acquaint  himself  with  God  and  put 
unrighteousness  away,  he  may  still  delight  himself  again  in  the 
Almighty. 

Job  makes,  no  reply  as  yet  to  the  cruel  accusations  :  his  thoughts 
are  upon  the  heavenly  Vindicator. 

Oh  that  I  knew  where  I  might  find  him : 
That  I  might  come  even  to  his  seat ! 

There  he  would  have  a  judge  that  would  not  use  his  greatness  to 
confound  him. 

Behold  I  go  forward, 

But  he  is  not  there ; 

And  backward, 

But  I  cannot  perceive  him  : 

On  the  left  hand,  when  he  doth  work, 

But  I  cannot  behold  him ; 

He  hideth  himself  on  the  right  hand, 

That  I  cannot  see  him. 

But  he  knoweth  the  way  that  I  take  ; 

When  he  hath  tried  me,  I  shall  come  forth  as  gold. 

His  spirit  purified  by  this  meditation,  Job  is  able  with  calm  delib- 
erateness  to  lay  before  his  Friends  the  new  thoughts  which  are 
troubling  him :  the  doubt  whether  his  own  is  after  all  an  excep- 
tional case,  whether  it  be  not  rather  the  truth  that  in  life  taken  as 
a  whole  the  times  of  the  Almighty  are  not  plainly  to  be  seen.  He 


INTRODUCTION  17 

speaks  of  the  violence  in  the  world,  and  the  poverty  that  violence 
brings  in  its  train :  how  men  remove  the  ancient  landmarks  and 
drive  the  needy  out  of  the  way,  until  they  have  to  seek  precarious 
subsistence  from  the  inclement  wilderness,  or  labour  in  the  fields 
of  which  they  may  never  eat.  He  tells  of  violence  in  the  city, 
and  cries  rising  to  a  regardless  God  ;  of  the  thief,  the  adulterer, 
the  murderer,  —  men  who  rebel  altogether  against  the  light,  and 
the  dawn  comes  upon  them  like  a  shadow  of  death.  Yet  all  these 
fare  just  like  the  rest  of  mankind. 

They  are  exalted;  yet  a  little  while,  and  they  are  gone; 
Yea,  they  are  brought  low,  they  are  gathered  in,  as  all  other ! 

Bildad  cannot  meet  these  questionings  of  Job :   his  thoughts 
are  filled  with  the  overpowering  greatness  of  God.      He  rises  on 
the   wave  of  a   great   theme,  as  he  pictures  the  Ruler 
of  the  Universe  engaged  in   matters   of   high    celestial 
policy,  or  discovering  blemishes  in  the  brightness  of  the  stars; 
before  him  the  Shades  beneath  the  sea  tremble ; *   Destruction 
and  the  Abyss  reveal  their  secrets ;  his  work  is  to  hang 
the  earth  upon  nothing,  to  support  the  mighty  waters  in 
the  flimsy  clouds,  to  divide  light  and  darkness  by  a  boundary  circle. 

Lo,  these  are  but  the  outskirts  of  his  ways; 

And  how  small  a  whisper  do  we  hear  of  him ! 

But  the  thunder  of  his  power  who  can  understand? 

The  Friends  have  persisted  in  ignoring  the  arguments  that  Job 

has  offered,  and  Job  can  only  fall  back  into  self-assertion,  xxvi.  1-4 

and 

As  God  liveth,  rxvii.  i-e 

Who  hath  taken  away  my  right ; 
And  the  Almighty, 
Who  hath  vexed  my  soul ; 
All  the  while  my  breath  is  in  me, 
And  the  spirit  of  God  is  in  my  nostrils  : 

Surely  my  lips  shall  not  speak  unrighteousness, 

Neither  shall  my  tongue  utter  deceit. 

1  In  reference  to  the  rearrangement  of  the  speeches  at  this  point  see  Job  in 
Literary  Index  (Appendix  I), 


18  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Once  more,  and  for  the  last  time,  the  doctrine  of  unfailing 
7-  judgment  on  sin  is  to  be  asserted,  and  Zophar  com- 
a8  mences: 

Let  mine  enemy  be  as  the  wicked  — 

His  long  experience  has  filled  him  with  instances  of  the  godless 
frustrated  in  their  hopes  :  their  children  multiplied  for  the  sword, 
their  heaped-up  silver  divided  amongst  the  innocent,  and  them- 
selves swept  by  the  tempest  out  of  their  place.  To  Zophar  this 
confidence  in  the  unerring  stroke  of  doom  seems  the  very  founda- 
tion of  Wisdom.  There  are  mines  out  of  which  may  be  dug  gold 
and  silver  and  precious  stones,  but  where  is  the  place  of  Wisdom  ? 

The  deep  saith,  It  is  not  in  me : 

And  the  sea  saith,  It  is  not  with  me : 

It  cannot  be  gotten  for  gold, 

Neither  shall  silver  be  weighed  for  the  price  thereof. 

God  only  is  the  source  of  it,  and  when  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  universe  he  inwrought  this  into  the  structure  of  his  world : 
that  the  fear  of  the  Lord  and  his  judgments  on  evil  —  this  should 
be  Wisdom  and  Understanding. 

Job  is  gathering  himself  together  for  his  final  vindication.  But 
first,  softly  to  himself,  he  meditates  upon  the  contrast  between 
then  and  now. 

O  that  I  were  as  in  the  months  of  old, 

As  in  the  days  when  God  watched  over  me ; 
When  his  lamp  shined  upon  my  head, 
And  by  his  light  I  walked  through  darkness. 

In  the  rich  imagery  of  the  East  he  paints  a  prosperity  that  washed 
his  steps  in  butter;  he  describes  the  hush  that  fell  upon  the 
assembly  of  the  great  when  he  advanced  to  join  them ;  how  among 
the  people  every  ear  that  heard  him  blessed  him,  and  every  eye 
that  saw  him  was  a  witness  to  the  deeds  of  kindness  by  which  he 
spread  happiness  around  him.  But  now  !  He  is  derided  by 
those  whose  fathers  were  not  to  be  ranked  with  the  dogs  of  his 


INTRODUCTION  19 

flock ;  the  very  rabble  thrust  him  aside  as  he  walks.     And  —  worse 

than  all  — 

Thou  art  turned  to  be  cruel  to  me  : 

With  the  might  of  thy  hand  thou  persecutest  me. 

But  before  friend  and  foe,  and  in  the  presence  of  God  himself, 

Job  stands  forth  to  make  solemn  vindication.     Towering   above 

the  seated  accusers,  he  waves  his  arm  in  the  full 

ritual  of  the  Oath  of  Clearing.     Article  by  article  Jo^s  Vindication 

he  repudiates  the  lust  of  the  eye,  oppression  of  the 

weak,  failure  in  charity  to  the  poor  or  hospitality  to  the  stranger, 

secret  trust  in  gold  or  secret  worship  of  the  heavenly  host ;  if  there 

be  any  other  transgression  —  and  Job  passionately  longs  to  see  the 

indictment  of  an  adversary  —  he  makes  the  very  concealment  of 

it  a  fresh  sin.     Once  more  he  breaks  out : 

If  my  land  cry  out  against  me, 

And  the  furrows  thereof  weep  together ; 

If  I  have  eaten  the  fruits  thereof  without  money, 

Or  have  caused  the  owners  thereof  to  lose  their  life  : 
Let  thistles  grow  instead  of  wheat,          , 
And  cockle  instead  of  barley ! 

Then,  with  a  wave  of  dismissal  —  "  The  words  of  Job  are  ended  " 
—  he  seats  himself  and  covers  his  face  with  his  robe ;  and  the 
Friends  understand  that  the  discussion  is  closed. 

Religious   tradition,  embodied  in  the  speeches  of  the   three 
Friends,  has  spent  its  energies  and  failed.     But  there  is  youth- 
ful  enthusiasm  represented  among  the  crowd  of  Interp0sition  of 
spectators  round  the  ash-mound,  in  the  person  of  Elihu 
Elihu,  of  the  great  family  of  Ram.     He  has  stood   XXX11 
listening  with  indignation  in  his  heart ;  indignation  against  Job 
because  he  justified  himself  and  not  God,  and  indignation  against 
the  Friends  because  they  had  been  unable  to  si- 

.  xxxii.  6-xxxiii 

lence  such  presumption.    Elihu  now  breaks  through 

the  circle  and  ascends  the  ash-mound,  standing  respectful  but 


* 

20  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

passionate  before  the  seated  elders.  He  had  said  that  days  must 
speak  and  multitude  of  years  show  wisdom  :  but  he  has  an  under- 
standing as  well  as  they ;  yea,  his  spirit  feels  like  wine  that  can  find 
no  vent  but  by  bursting  its  bottle.  Thus,  with  juvenile  profuse- 
ness,  he  pours  forth  some  fifty  lines  in  saying  that  he  is  about  to 
speak,  before  he  confronts  Job  —  who  had  longed  to  meet  God 
face  to  face  —  with  the  words  : 

Behold,  I  am  according  to  thy  wish,  in  God's  stead. 

He  thus  reaches  the  point  which  makes  his  contribution  to  the 
discussion,  —  a  facet  of  the  truth  which  his  generation  was  seeing 
a  little  more  clearly  than  the  generation  before  him.  It  may  be 

made  a  Third  Solution  of  the  Mystery:  Suffering 
(Third  Solution)       .  J       .        J    / 

is   one  of  the  voices   by  which    God  warns  and 

restores  men.  He  describes  a  man  chastened  with  pain  upon  his 
bed  until  his  life  abhorreth  bread,  and  his  soul  the  daintiest  meat : 

If  there  be  with  him  an  angel, 
An  interpreter,  one  among  a  thousand, 
To  shew  unto  man  what  is  right  for  him; 
Then  he  is  gracious  unto  him,  and  saith, 
"  Deliver  him  from  going  down  to  the  pit, 
I  have  found  a  ransom." 

An  idyllic  picture  follows  of  restored  purity  and  happy  penitence  ; 
and  Elihu  urges  this  view  upon  Job,  and  pauses  for  Job's  reply. 

But  Job  vouchsafes  no  reply ;  and  receives  the  new  light  with 
contemptuous  indifference. 

Disappointed  at  this  reception,  Elihu  turns  to  the  three  Friends 

—  as  wise  men  with  an  ear  to  try  words  —  and  hopes  to  take 

them  with  him,  and  all  men  of  understanding,  in  his 

xxxiv 

protest  against  this  Job,  who  drinketh  up  scorning  like 
water,  who  addeth  rebellion  unto  sin,  and  clappeth  his  hands 
against  God.  He  enlarges  upon  the  presumption  of  mankind 
and  the  judgments  with  which  it  is  overwhelmed,  and  looks  to 
the  three  Friends  for  assent. 


INTRODUCTION  21 

But  the  three  Friends  make  no  sign ;  they  meet  their  youthful 
champion  with  chilling  silence. 

Slighted  on  both  sides,  Elihu,  like  Job,  is  driven  to  look  up- 
wards :  as  his  glance  sweeps  the  sky,  another  flood 

...         .       .  xxxv-xxxvii 

of  inspiration  comes  upon  him. 

Look  unto  the  Heavens,  and  see : 

he  cries,  alike  to  Job  and  to  his  companions.  Is  the  God  of  those 
heavens,  he  asks,  a  God  to  be  harmed  by  a  man's  sin,  or  benefited 
by  his  righteousness?  Thus,  "fetching  his  knowledge  from  afar," 
he  makes  the  heavens  a  starting-point  for  a  fresh  vindication  of 
the  providence  that  brings  low  and  builds  up  again  mighty  kings, 

or  cuts  off  whole  peoples  in  a  night.     A  rumble  of 

Rise  of  the  Whirl- 
distant  thunder  recalls  him  to  his  text ;  and;  when  wind 

he  looks  up  a  second  time,  the  brilliant  sky  of  the  xxxvi.  22- 
land  of  Vz  has  begun  to  show  signs  of  change. 
Now  his  whole  discussion  of  providential  might  is  bound  up  with 
the  manifestations  of  power  that  are  being  exhibited  at  the  moment 
in  the  changing  heavens.  His  words  bring  before  us  the  small 
drops  of  water  and  the  spreading  clouds,  the  play  of  lightning  and 
the  noise  that  tells  of  God,  down  to  the  very  cattle  standing  expect- 
ant of  the  coming  storm.  When  a  nearer  burst  of  thunder  makes 
his  heart  tremble  and  move  out  of  its  place,  Elihu  still  keeps  his 
eyes  fastened  upon  the  sky  :  he  finds  fresh  texts  in  the  roaring  voice 
of  the  heavens,  and  the  lightning  that  lightens  to  the  ends  of  the 
earth,  in  the  snow  intermingled  with  mighty  rain  as  the  icy  breath 
of  the  north  encounters  the  storm  out  of  the  chambers  of  the 
south,  in  the  thick  clouds  wearied  with  waterings,  and  their  delicate 
balancings  as  they  descend,  and  descend,  until  they  have  wrapped 
in  their  folds  speaker  and  hearers,  and  they  cannot  order  their 
speech  by  reason  of  the  darkness,  and  the  impetuous  eloquence  of 
Elihu  has  died  down  into  dread  : 

If  a  man  speak,  surely  he  shall  be  swallowed  up  ! 
Now  the  whirlwind  is  upon  them  :  in  marvellous  wise  its  blasts 


22  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

seem  to  cleanse  the  mirky  darkness  into  order ;  flashes  of  un- 
earthly bright  out  of  the  dark  make  them  cast  their  eyes  down- 
ward ;  until  the  flashes  at  last  grow  together  into  one  terrible 
majesty  of  golden  splendour  in  the  northern  heart  of  the  storm, 
and  the  whirlwind  has  become  the 

VOICE  OF  GOD 

Divine  Inter-    Who  is  this  that  darkeneth  counsel  by  words  without  knowledge  ? 

vention  Gird  up  now  thy  loins  like  a  man ; 

xzxviii-xlii.  6  por  j  wjjj  deman(i  of  thee>  and  declare  thou  unto  me. 

As  the  Voice  comes  out  of  the  storm  a  new  aspect  of  the  dis- 
cussion unfolds  itself.  The  perplexities  of  Job  and  his  Friends 
rested  upon  a  one-sided  view  that  confined  its  survey  to  Evil,  as 
if  it  alone  were  exceptional  and  unintelligible  ;  the  speech  attrib- 
uted to  the  Divine  Being  comes  to  restore  the  balance  by  taking 
a  more  comprehensive  survey.  It  may  be  reckoned  as  a  Fourth 

Solution  of  the  Problem  :    That  the  whole  universe 
(Fourth  Solution) 

is  an  unfathomed  Mystery,  in  which  the  Evil  is  not 

more  mysterious  than  the  Good  and  the  Great.  The  idea  of  the 
whirlwind  is  maintained  throughout :  the  tone  of  overmastering 
might  —  so  often  mistaken  for  the  meaning  of  this  Theophany  — 
is  no  more  than  the  outward  form  in  which  the  words  of  God  are 
embodied ;  the  traditional  association  of  thunder  with  the  voice 
of  God  leading  our  poet  to  convey  the  speech  of  Deity  in  the 
form  of  short  sharp  interrogatories,  like  explosions  of  thunder, 
each  outburst  putting  some  startling  mystery  of  nature. 

Who  shut  up  the  sea  with  doors, 

When  it  brake  forth  and  issued  out  of  the  womb ; 

When  I  made  the  cloud  the  garment  thereof, 

And  thick  darkness  a  swaddling  band  for  it, 

And  prescribed  for  it  my  decree, 

And  set  bars  and  doors, 

And  said,  "  Hitherto  shall  thou  come,  but  no  further ; 

And  here  shall  thy  proud  waves  be  stayed  "  ? 


INTRODUCTION  23 

Have  the  gates  of  death  been  revealed  unto  thee, 
Or  hast  thou  seen  the  gates  of  the  shadow  of  death  ? 

Where  is  the  way  to  the  dwelling  of  light, 

And  as  for  darkness,  where  is  the  place  thereof  ? 

Hath  the  rain  a  father  ? 

Or  who  hath  begotten  the  drops  of  dew  ? 

Out  of  whose  womb  came  the  ice  ? 

And  the  hoary  frost  of  heaven,  who  hath  gendered  it  ? 

There  is  no  pause  in  the  succession  of  wonders :  the  wonder  of 
the  lioness  hunting  her  prey ;  of  the  young  ravens  crying  to  God 
for  their  food ;  the  wonder  of  the  wild  goats  bringing  forth  their 
young ;  the  wonder  of  the  wild  ass  ranging  loose  in  the  wilderness, 
and  the  ox  abiding  patiently  by  his  crib;  the  wonder  of  the 
ostrich,  foolish  over  her  young  because  God  has  deprived  her  of 
wisdom,  glorious  in  flight,  putting  to  scorn  the  horse  and  his 
rider;  the  wonder  of  the  war-horse  pawing  in  the  valley  and 
rejoicing  in  his  strength,  swallowing  the  ground  in  fierceness  and 
rage  amid  the  thunder  of  the  captains  and  the  shouting.  There 
is  a  momentary  lull  in  the  storm,  when  Job's  voice  is  heard  in 
awe-struck  humility : 

Once  have  I  spoken,  and  I  will  not  answer : 
Yea  twice,  but  I  will  proceed  no  further. 

Then  again  the  swirl  of  mystery  rages  around  :  the  Voice  tells  of 
Behemoth,  with  bones  of  brass  and  limbs  of  iron,  his  larder  a 
mountain  and  a  jungle  his  bower,  watching  unconcernedly  the 
swelling  of  the  boisterous  waterfloods ;  or  of  Leviathan  himself, 
panoplied  against  the  hook  of  the  fisher  or  snare  of  the  fowler, 
and  scorning  even  the  hunter's  spear  and  the  arrows  of  the  war- 
rior, flashing  light  and  breathing  smoke  as  he  goes,  terror  dancing 
before  him,  and  ocean  turning  hoary  in  his  wake. 

At  last  the  storm  begins  to  abate,  and  Job  is  able  to  make  his 
submission.  He  knows  that  God  is  all-powerful,  and  that  no 
purpose  of  his  can  be  restrained. 


24  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

—  "  Who  is  this  that  hideth  counsel  without  knowledge?"  — 

comes  like  an  echoing  rumble  of  the  retiring  storm.  Job  admits 
the  charge  :  he  has  uttered  that  which  he  understood  not,  and 
meddled  in  things  too  high  for  him. 

—  "I  will  demand  of  thee,  and  declare  thou  unto  me  "  — 

again  sounds  forth,  like  a  more  distant  echo  of  the  tempest.  Job 
comprehends  his  whole  submission  in  one  utterance. 

I  had  heard  of  thee  by  the  hearing  of  the  ear; 
But  now  mine  eye  seeth  thee, 
Wherefore  I  abhor  myself,  and  repent 
In  dust  and  ashes. 

Then  the  storm  has  entirely  cleared  away.     And  with  it  the 
dramatic  poem  has  given  place  to  the  frame  of  story :  which 
resumes  to  relate  how,  when  Job  had  thus  spoken, 

the   anger  of  the  Lord  was  kindled  against  the 
three  Friends,  because  they  had  not  said  of  Him 

the  thing  that  was  right  as  His  servant  Job  had.  Thus  the  Epi- 
logue furnishes  a  Fifth  Solution  :  the  proper  attitude  of  mind 

towards  the  Mystery  of  Human  Suffering:  that 
(Fifth  Solution) 

the  strong  faith  of  Job,  which  could  even  reproach 
God  as  a  friend  reproaches  a  friend,  was  more  acceptable  to  Him 
than  the  servile  adoration  which  sought  to  twist  the  truth  in  order 
to  magnify  God.  It  only  remains  to  tell  how  the  Lord  turned  the 
captivity  of  Job,  and  his  wealth  and  prosperity  returned  in  greater 
measure  than  before ;  and  he  begat  sons  and  daughters,  and  saw 
his  sons'  sons  to  the  fourth  generation.  So  Job  died,  being  old 
and  full  of  years. 


INTRODUCTION  25 


II 

Such  is  the  Book  of  Job  presented  as  a  piece  of  literature. 
The  questions  of  Theology  or  historic  criticism  that  it  suggests 
are  outside  the  scope  of  the  present  work.     Our  Literary  Interest 
immediate  concern  is  with  the  various   kinds   of  in  the  Book  of 
literary   interest    which    have    touched   us   as   we  Job 
have  traversed  this  monument  of  ancient  literature. 

The  dominant  impression  is  that  of  a  magnificent  drama.  No 
element  of  dramatic  effect  is  wanting ;  and  that  which  we  might 
least  have  expected,  the  scenic  effect,  is  especially  Dramatic 
impressive.  The  great  ash-mound  outside  an  an-  interest 
cient  village  or  town  makes  a  stage  just  suited  for  of  Back£round 
the  single  scene  —  and  that  an  open-air  scene  —  to  which  a  Greek 
tragedy  would  be  confined.  And  resemblance  to  a  Greek  drama 
is  further  maintained  by  the  crowd  of  spectators  who  stand  round 
this  ash-mound  like  a  silent  Chorus;  —  unless,  indeed,  we  are  to 
consider  that  their  sentiments  are  conveyed  by  Elihu  as  Chorus- 
Leader.  When  we  reach  the  crisis  of  the  poem  we  are  able  to 
see  what  advantage  a  drama  addressed  purely  to  the  imagination 
may  have  over  plays  intended  for  the  theatre.  No  stage  machin- 
ery could  possibly  realise  the  changes  of  sky  and  atmosphere 
which  in  Job  make  a  dramatic  background  for  the  approach  of 
Deity.  It  is  true  that  the  original  poem  does  not  describe  these 
changes,  as  I  have  done,  in  straightforward  narrative.  But  every 
scholar  is  aware  that  the  '  stage  directions '  of  modern  plays  are 
wanting  in  the  dramas  of  antiquity  :  whatever  variations  of  move- 
ment and  surroundings  these  involve  have  to  be  collected  from  the 
words  of  the  personages  who  take  part  in  the  dialogue.  And  in 
the  transformation  traced  above,  from  a  day  of  brilliant  sunshine 
to  a  thunderstorm,  and  yet  further  to  a  supernatural  apparition, 
every  detail  of  change  is  implied  in  the  words  of  Elihu.  We 
watch  the  changing  scene  through  the  eyes  of  those  who  are  in 
the  midst  of  it. 


26  LITERARY  STUDY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

Interest  of  character  abounds  in  the  poem.     I  must  confess  I 
cannot  follow  the  subtle  differences  which  some  commentators  see 

between  the  characters  of  the  three  Friends.     It 
of  Character 

is  easy  to  recognise  in  Eliphaz  a  stately  personage 

with  a  wider  range  of  thought  than  his  colleagues.  But  Bildad 
and  Zophar  leave  different  impressions  on  different  readers.  To 
me  Bildad  seems  a  touch  more  blunt  in  his  manner  than  the  rest. 
Of  Zophar  I  would  only  say  that  the  speeches  assigned  him  fit 
well  with  the  suggestion  of  his  being  a  generation  older  than  the 
other  personages  of  the  poem ;  though  of  course  the 
words  of  Eliphaz  which  claim  such  a  personage  as  on 
his  side  need  not  necessarily  refer  to  anyone  present.  But  what- 
ever may  be  thought  about  the  individualities  of  the  Friends,  no 
one  can  miss  the  contrast  between  the  whole  group  and  Job; 
I  between  the  interest  of  static  character  in  various  modifications 
I  of  conformity  to  current  ideals,  and  the  interest  of  a  dynamic  per- 
sonality like  that  of  Job,  which  can  look  back  to  a  realisation  of 
the  perfection  his  friends  describe,  and  can  yet  at  the  call  of  cir- 
cumstances fling  his  former  beliefs  to  the  winds,  and  probe  pas- 
sionately among  the  mysteries  of  providence  for  new  conceptions 
of  divine  rule.  And  the  welcome  addition  to  the  poem  of  Elihu 
adds  the  ever  fresh  interest  of  youth  in  contrast  with  age.  In  the 
impetuous  self-confidence  of  this  personage,  his  flowing  yet  jejune 
eloquence,  and  in  the  chilling  reception  it  meets  alike  from  Job 
and  Job's  adversaries,  we  have  youth  presented  from  the  one  side. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  youth  has  dramatic  justice  done  to  it 
when  we  find  Elihu's  heart  beating  responsive  to  every  change 
of  the  changing  heavens,  and  eagerly  drinking  in  the  accumulat- 
ing terrors  of  the  storm,  until  his  wild  speech  stops  only  before 
the  voice  of  God. 

But  scenery  and  character  might  almost  be  called  secondary 
elements  of  drama:  its  essence  lies  in  action.     The  whole  world 

of  literature  hardly  contains   a  more   remarkable 

and  of  Movement       .  ..    ,  .  ,  .         .  „ 

piece  of  dramatic  movement  than  the  changes  of 

position  taken  up  by  Job  in  the  course  of  his  dialogue  with  the 


INTRODUCTION  27 

Friends.  Before  it  commenced  Job  had  met  his  ruin  with  that 
ideal  patience  which  has  forever  been  associated  with  his  name. 
At  last  we  find  just  a  shadow  of  resistance  in  his  plaintive  enquiry, 
why  life  should  be  forced  upon  the  miserable.  His  friends  fasten 
upon  this,  and  make  it  a  starting-point  for  the  discussion  in  which 
they  urge  that  the  sufferer  is  a  sinner.  Almost  in  an  instant  the 
patient  Job  is  transformed  into  an  angry  rebel,  tearing  to  shreds 
optimist  views  of  righteous  providence,  and,  with  the  passion  of  a 
Titan,  painting  God  as  an  Irresponsible  Omnipotence  that  delights 
to  put  righteousness  and  wickedness  on  an  equality  of  helplessness 
to  resist  Him.  The  Friends  continue  their  pressure,  and  Job  is 
driven  to  appeal  to  God  against  their  misconstruction ;  more  and 
more  as  the  action  advances  Job  is  led  to  rest  his  hopes  of  vindi- 
cation on  the  Being  he  began  by  maligning.  At  last  he  is  found 
to  have  traversed  a  circle  :  and  the  same  God  whom,  in  the  ninth 
chapter,  he  had  accused  of  exercising  judgment  only  to  show  his 
omnipotence,  he  contrasts  with  the  Friends  in  the  twenty-third 
chapter  as  a  judge  who  would  not  contend  with  him  in  the  great- 
ness of  his  power.  When  the  climax  of  the  Theophany  comes, 
this  movement  of  the  drama  is  carried  forward  into  a  double  sur- 
prise. Job  had  felt  that  if  only  he  could  find  his  way  into  the 
presence  of  God  his  cause  would  be  secure.  His  prayer  is  strangely 
granted,  and  with  what  result  ? 

I  had  heard  of  thee  by  the  hearing  of  the  ear; 
But  now  mine  eye  seeth  thee, 
Wherefore  I  abhor  myself,  and  repent 
In  dust  and  ashes. 

Yet  was  Job's  first  thought  a  mistake  ?  The  answer  is  a  second 
surprise.  While  the  tempest  lasts  the  Theophany  appears  wholly 
directed  against  Job.  But  when  the  storm  has  cleared  it  is  found 
to  be  the  adversaries  who  have  incurred  the  wrath  of  God,  and  his 
servant  Job  has  said  of  him  the  thing  that  is  right.  The  deep 
moral  significance  of  these  various  presentations  of  Deity  need 
not  make  us  overlook  the  dramatic  beauty  in  the  transition  from 
one  to  another. 


28  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

The  dialogue  \n.Job  is  introduced  and  concluded  by  a  narrative 
story,  and  to  dramatic  effect  must  be  added  epic  :  I  use  this  word 

without  meaning  to  convey  any  judgment  on  the 
Epic  Interest 

question  whether  the  incidents  of  the  book  are  to 

be  regarded  as  imaginary  or  as  historically  true.  The  narrative  is 
one  of  grand  simplicity,  like  the  epics  of  antiquity.  A  few  touches 
create  for  us  a  whole  picture  of  life  and  scheme  of  society.  The 
first  note  struck  is  that  of  perfection ;  and  the  life  of  which  Job 
is  declared  the  perfect  type  is  that  of  a  simple  pastoral  age.  His 
substance  of  cattle  is  given  in  ideal  figures ;  and  he  is  called  the 
greatest  of  all  the  children  of  the  east.  It  is  an  age  in  which  the 
'  state '  is  not  yet  born,  but  family  life  is  pictured  on  the  highest 
scale.  The  great  seasons  which  break  the  monotony  of  such 
patriarchal  existence  are  rounds  of  festal  gatherings  among  the 
seven  sons  of  Job,  each  receiving  on  his  day  with  a  regularity 
never  broken ;  the  sons  moreover  invite  their  sisters,  and  so 
women's  society  raises  a  revel  into  a  dignified  ceremonial.  Such 
interchange  of  festivity  would  represent  the  highest  ordinary  ideals 
of  the  age.  But  behind  this,  Job,  who  lives  in  a  wider  world,  has 
his  high  day  of  religious  devotion,  rising  early  in  the  morning  to 
sanctify  his  children  against  possible  sin. 

In  an  instant,  without  any  connecting  link  or  wordy  preparation, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  old  epics  which  have  the  doings  of  gods 
and  men  alike  in  their  grasp,  we  are  transported  to  the  heavenly 
counterpart  of  such  earthly  festivities.  Heaven  too  has  its  high 
day  on  which  the  sons  of  God  gather  together  from  their  several 
provinces ;  in  the  description  of  two  such  assemblies  the  recur- 
rence of  identical  phrases  conveys  the  notion  of  ritual  and  cere- 
monial observance.  We  reach  a  point  in  the  story  at  which  the 
utmost  care  is  needed  to  guard  against  a  misconception  of  the 

whole  incident.  Among  the  sons  of  God,  it  is 
jib)6  Satan  °f  said'  comes  ' Tne  Satan.'  It  is  best  to  use  the  article 

and  speak  of  '  The  Satan,'  or  as  the  margin  gives 
it,  '  The  Adversary ' :  that  is,  the  Adversary  of  the  Saints.  Else- 
where in  Scripture  the  title  of  this  office  ha?  become  the  name  of 


INTR  OD  UC  TION  29 

a  personage  —  the  Adversary  of  God,  or  'Satan.'1  But  here  (as 
in  a  similar  passage  of  ZechariaK)  the  Satan  is  an  official 
of  the  Court  of  Heaven.  There  is  nothing  in  his  recep-  Ze°ha~ 
tion  to  distinguish  him  from  the  other  sons  of  God ;  as 
they  may  come  from  sun  or  moon  or  other  parts  of  the  Uni- 
verse, so  the  Satan  is  the  Inspector  of  Earth,  and  describes  his 
occupation  as  "  going  to  and  fro  in  the  earth,  and  walking  up  and 
down  in  it."  When  once  the  associations  with  the  other  '  Satan' 
are  laid  aside,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  in  the  dealings  of  this  per- 
sonage with  Job  there  is  no  malignity ;  he  simply  questions  where 
others  accept,  and  in  an  inspector  such  distrust  is  a  virtue.  The 
Roman  Church  has  exactly  caught  this  conception  in  its  'Advoca- 
tus  Diaboli ' :  such  an  advocate  may  be  in  fact  a  pious  and  kindly 
ecclesiastic,  but  he  has  the  function  assigned  him  of  searching  out 
all  possible  evil  that  can  be  alleged  against  a  candidate  for  canoni- 
sation, lest  the  honours  of  the  Church  might  be  given  without  due 
enquiry.  In  the  present  case  the  Satan  merely  points  out  possible 
weaknesses  in  Job,  and  a  means  of  testing  them.  The  Court  of 
Heaven  sanctions  the  '  experiment ' :  —  the  word  '  experiment '  has 
only  to  be  changed  into  its  equivalent  'probation'  for  the  whole 
proceeding  to  be  brought  within  accepted  notions  of  divine  gov- 
ernment. 

Epic  power  is  again  exhibited  in  the  description  of  the  mode  in 
which  this  experiment  is  carried  out.  Slow  history  brings  about 
results  by  what  means  are  in  its  power,  with  much  of  makeshift, 
and  accidents  which  mar  the  symmetry  of  events.  But  epic 
poetry  can  make  its  action  harmonious  ;  and  it  seems  to  be  a 
conspiracy  of  heaven  and  earth  that  compasses  Job's  destruction. 
The  Sabeans  take  his  oxen,  the  sky  rains  fire  upon  the  sheep,  the 

1  Bishop  Bickersteth  in  his  epic  poem  Yesterday,  To-day,  and  Forever  ingeniously 
harmonises  these  two  conceptions  of  Satan.  He  makes  his  Lucifer  Guardian  Spirit 
of  Earth  and  Man  :  as  part  of  his  office  he  tempts  Adam :  then  flies  to  Heaven  to  be 
fallen  Man's  accuser :  gradually  the  spirit  in  which  he  has  executed  his  office 
intensifies  and  makes  more  and  more  pronounced  his  own  fall,  until  he  at  last  sinks 
into  an  open  Adversary  of  God.  See  the  poem,  books  iv-vi.  and  the  bishop's  de- 
fence of  this  view  in  the  St.  James's  Sermons. 


30  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Chaldeans  carry  away  the  camels,  and  the  winds  of  the  wilderness 
overwhelm  Job's  children :  while  the  separate  destructions  are 
worked  into  a  concerto  of  ruin  by  the  recurrence  of  the  mes- 
senger's wail  — 

I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee. 

It  is  an  ideally  grand  shock.  But  at  this  stage  Job's  character  is 
epic,  and  the  shock  is  met  by  an  ideal  grandeur  of  acceptance. 
One  by  one  the  customary  gestures  of  distress  are  exhibited,  and 
then  slowly  succeed  the  words  which  have  become  the  world's 
formulary  for  the  emotion  of  bereavement.  They  are  sublime 
words,  that  first  proclaim  simply  the  essential  manhood  to  which 
the  whole  of  life  is  but  an  accessory,  and  then  throw  over  pious 
submission  a  grace  of  oriental  courtesy  that  would  make  the 
resumption  of  a  gift  an  occasion  for  remembering  the  giver. 

Naked  came  I  out  of  my  mother's  womb, 
And  naked  shall  I  return  thither ! 

The  LORD  gave,  and  the  LORD  hath  taken  away  : 
Blessed  be  the  Name  of  the  LORD  ! 

Our  epic  plot  intensifies,  and  when  the  second  assembly  in 
heaven  is  held,  God  and  the  Satan  concur  in  honouring  Job's  con- 
stancy by  severer  tests.  In  what  follows  there  is  no  realistic 
description  ;  epic  poetry  can  act  by  reticence,  and  a  word  or  two 
are  sufficient  to  convey  the  picture  of  Job  shrinking  away  silent 
and  unclean  from  among  his  fellows,  with  a  patience  terrible  to 
look  upon ;  until  the  silence  is  broken  by  a  second  of  those 
utterances  of  his  which  are  so  colossal  in  their  simplicity.  The 
oriental  nomad  life  has  two  ideals  specially  its  own.  One  is  the 
solemn  giving  and  receiving  of  gifts.  The  other  is  an  instinct  of 
authority  that  knows  no  bounds  to  its  submission :  an  oriental 
seems  to  feel  a  pride  in  self-prostration  before  his  natural  lord. 
Both  ideals  are  united  in  Job's  answer  to  his  wife's  murmur  : 

What?  shall  we  receive  good  at  the  hands  of  God  and 
shall  we  not  receive  evil? 


INTRODUCTION  31 

The  simple  power  of  epic  poetry  has  raised  us  to  a  high  plane 
of  thought  and  feeling :  upon  that  plane  the  action  of  the  poem  is 
to  move  with  a  passionateness  that  is  proper  to 

drama.     But  there  ft  a  transition   stage   between  The  Curse  a  Lyric 

Poem 
the  one  and  the  other  in  that  portion  of  the  book 

entitled  '  Job's  Curse.'  This  is  not  narrative,  and  so  cannot  be 
epic ;  it  is  clearly  distinct  from  the  dramatic  poetry  to  which  it  is 
a  starting-point.  Examination  of  it  shows  at  once  the  musical 
elaboration  and  accumulation  of  musings  on  a  situation  or  thought 
which  we  associate  with  lyric  poetry.  The  Curse  is  a  counterpart 
to  such  English  lyrics  as  Wordsworth's  Intimations  of  Immortality 
or  Gray's  Bard.  I  subjoin  the  whole  here,  that  it  may  be  read 
in  this  connection  as  a  separate  lyric :  —  an  Elegy  of  a  Broken 
Heart. 


Let  the  day  perish  wherein  I  was  born; 

And  the  night  which  said,  There  is  a  man  child  conceived  I 

Let  that  day  be  darkness; 

Let  not  God  regard  it  from  above, 

Neither  let  the  light  shine  upon  it ! 

Let  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death  claim  it  for  their  own; 

Let  a  cloud  dwell  upon  it;  t 

Let  all  that  maketh  black  the  day  terrify  it ! 

As  for  that  night,  let  thick  darkness  seize  upon  it; 

Let  it  not  rejoice  among  the  days  of  the  year; 

Let  it  not  come  into  the  number  of  the  months ! 

Lo,  let  that  night  be  barren; 

Let  no  joyful  voice  come  therein  ! 

Let  them  curse  it  that  curse  the  day, 

Who  are  ready  to  rouse  up  leviathan ! 

Let  the  stars  of  the  twilight  thereof  be  dark ! 

Let  it  look  for  light,  but  have  none; 

Neither  let  it  behold  the  eyelids  of  the  morning : 

Because  it  shut  not  up  the  doors  of  my  mother's  womb, 
Nor  hid  trouble  from  mine  eyes ! 


32  LITERARY  STUDY  OP  THE  BIBLE 


Why  died  I  not  from  the  womb  ? 

Why  did  I  not  give  up  the  ghost  when  I  came  out  of  the  belly  ? 
Why  did  the  knees  receive  me  ? 

Or  why  the  breasts,  that  I  should  suck  ? 

For  now  should  I  have  lien  down  and  been  quiet ; 
I  should  have  slept ;  then  had  I  been  at  rest, 

With  kings  and  counsellors  of  the  earth, 

Which  built  solitary  piles  for  themselves ; 

Or  with  princes  that  had  gold, 

Who  filled  their  houses  with  silver  ; 
Or  as  an  hidden  untimely  birth  I  had  not  been ; 
As  infants  which  never  saw  light. 

There  the  wicked  cease  from  troubling ; 

And  there  the  weary  be  at  rest. 

There  the  prisoners  are  at  ease  together ; 

They  hear  not  the  voice  of  the  taskmaster. 

The  small  and  great  are  there  ; 

And  the  servant  is  free  from  his  master. 

Wherefore  is  light  given  to  him  that  is  in  misery, 
And  life  unto  the  bitter  in  soul? 

Which  long  for  death,  but  it  cometh  not ; 

And  dig  for  it  more  than  for  hid  treasures ; 

Which  rejoice  exceedingly, 

And  are  glad  when  they  can  find  the  grave. 
Why  is  light  given  to  a  man  whose  way  is  hid, 
And  whom  God  hath  hedged  in? 

For  my  sighing  cometh  before  I  eat, 

And  my  roarings  are  poured  out  like  water. 

For  the  thing  which  I  fear  cometh  upon  me, 

And  that  which  I  am  afraid  of  cometh  unto  me. 

I  am  not  at  ease,  neither  am  I  quiet, 

Neither  have  I  rest ;  but  trouble  cometh. 

Our  result  then  so  far  is  that  the  Book  of  Job  contains  specimens 
of  epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  composition ;  all  the  three  main 
elements  of  poetry  find  a  representation  in  it,  and  a  representation 


INTRODUCTION  33 

of  the  most  impressive  kind.     I  pass  now  to  those  departments 
of  literature  which  are  usually  considered  to  be 
furthest  removed    from  poetry,  —  philosophy  and 


science  :  philosophy  that  seeks  to  find  a  meaning 

underlying  life  as  a  whole,  and  science  that  observes  in  detail  and 

arranges  its  observations. 

The  whole  work  is  a  philosophical  discussion  dramatised.     The 
subject  discussed  is  the  mystery  of  human  suffering,  various  Attitudes 
and  its  bearing  upon  the  righteous  government  of  to  the  problem 
the  world  :    this  is  one  of  the  stock  questions  of  d 
philosophy.     Each  section  of  the  book  is  the  representation  of  a 
different  philosophical  attitude  to  this  question. 

The  three  Friends  present  a  cut  and  dried  theory  of  suffering  — 
that  it  is  always  penal.  They  are  brought  before 
us  as  behaving  in  the  usual  fashion  of  persons 
finally  committed  to  a  theory  :  they  pour  out 
stores  of  facts  that  make  for  their  view,  they  ignore  and  refuse  to 
examine  facts  that  tell  against  it,  and  they  hint  moral  obliquity  as 
the  real  explanation  of  refusal  to  concur  in  their 
doctrine.  Elihu  introduces  the  same  theory  modi- 
fied  and  corrected  to  date  ;  with  him  suffering  is 
punishment  for  sin,  but  that  special  kind  of  punishment  which  is 
corrective  in  character.  He  accordingly  stands  for  a  philosophic 
school  of  the  second  generation  ;  and  we  are  not  surprised  to  find 
him  maintaining  his  position  with  as  much  inflexibility  as  the 
Friends  have  shown,  and  at  the  same  time  magnifying  his  slight 
difference  from  them,  and  appearing  no  less  an  adversary  to  the 
Friends  than  to  Job  himself. 

Beware  lest  ye  say,  "  We  have  found  wisdom  ; 

God  may  vanquish  him,  not  man  "  : 
For  he  hath  not  directed  his  words  against  me  ; 
Neither  will  I  answer  him  with  your  speeches. 

At  the  furthest  remove  from  these  is  found  Job,  who  takes  a 
negative  attitude,  shattering  other  theories  but  providing  none  of 


34  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

his  own.  Of  course  no  one  will  understand  Job  really  to  accept 
what  some  of  his  words  imply,  as  where  he  sees  in 
God  an  omniP°tence  tha*  judges  only  to  display 
power.  But  these  wild  words  are  not  out  of  place 
as  a  poetically  strong  representation  of  the  perplexities  that  en- 
counter one  who  would  explain  providential  action.  Job  simply 
cannot  solve  these  perplexities ;  he  trusts  in  a  divine  vindication 
at  some  time,  but  meanwhile  can  only  pronounce  the  problem  of 
life  insoluble.  This  is  distinctly  a  philosophic  attitude  :  it  is  noth- 
ing but  the  famous  epoche,  or  suspension  of  mind,  which  from  the 
time  of  Socrates  has  been  recognised  as  a  natural  tone  of  mind 
for  an  enquirer.  Of  course  there  is  a  vast  difference  between 
the  cold  brightness  of  Plato's  dialogues  and  the  heated  debate  in 
Job ;  the  Hebrew  poem  is  not  the  discussion  in  the  Porch  or 
Garden,  but  represents  philosophy  as  it  is  talked  in  the  school 
of  affliction.  Job  represents  the  epoche  in  a  passion. 

Yet  another  philosophical  position  is  embodied  in  the  Divine 
Intervention.  As  I  have  suggested  above,  this  portion  of  the 
Divine  interven-  Poem  has  been  often  misunderstood.  It  has  been 
tion:  Reference  to  assumed,  not  unnaturally,  that  the  Divine  Inter- 
a  wider  category  vention_like  the  Deus  ex  machind  of  the  Greek 
drama  —  must  be  a  final  settlement  of  the  questions  in  dispute. 
When  the  speeches  attributed  to  God  are  examined  in  this  light 
they  are  found  to  be  no  settlement  at  all,  or,  what  were  worse 
than  any  settlement,  an  indignant  denial  of  man's  right  to  ques- 
tion. But  such  interpretations  overlook  one  important  considera- 
tion :  that  in  the  epilogue  Job  is  pronounced  by  the  Lord  to  have 
said  of  him  the  thing  that  is  right,  while  Job's  Friends,  who  main- 
tained the  wickedness  of  questioning,  are  declared  to  have  incurred 
the  Divine  anger.  The  interpretation  involves  a  double  mistake. 
On  the  one  hand  the  Divine  Intervention  is  not  a  settlement  of 
the  matter  in  dispute ;  at  the  end  of  the  poem  the  problem  of 
human  suffering  remains  a  mystery.  But  this  section  of  the  work, 
like  others,  is  a  distinct  contribution  towards  a  solution.  In  esti- 
mating what  that  contribution  is  a  second  mistake  must  be  avoided, 


INTRODUCTION  35 

by  which  form  and  substance  have  been  confused.  The  tone  of 
scorn  which  rings  through  the  sentences  of  the  Divine  utterance 
must,  as  I  have  said  above,  be  considered  part  of  the  dramatic 
form  thrown  over  the  discussion;  the  poet  has  conceived  the 
thunder  tone  to  be  the  proper  embodiment  for  the  Divine  voice, 
and  the  explosive  interrogatories  of  which  the  speeches  are  com- 
posed are  just  as  much  a  portion  of  this  dramatic  setting  as  the 
signs  of  a  rising  tempest  which  are  put  into  the  mouth  of  Elihu. 
The  whole  is  introduced  with  the  explanation:  "The  Lord 
answered  Job  out  of  the  whirlwind."  But  when  we  go  below 
this  outer  form,  and  enquire  what  is  the  general  drift  of  the 
Divine  utterance  as  a  whole,  we  find,  as  I  have  said  before,  that 
its  effect  is  to  widen  the  field  of  discussion.  Job  has  fastened  his 
attention  simply  upon  Evil,  and  successfully  maintained  its  inex- 
plicableness  against  his  friends.  The  Divine  Intervention  brings 
out  that  the  Good  and  the  Great,  all  that  men  instinctively 
admire  in  the  universe,  is  just  as  inexplicable  as  Evil.  Now  this 
is  distinctly  a  contribution  towards  the  solution  of  the  problem ; 
in  philosophic  terms,  it  has  included  the  matter  under  discussion 
in  a  wider  category,  and  this  represents  a  stage  of  philosophic 
advance.  Moreover,  it  implies  consolation  to  the  human  sufferer 
as  well  as  progress  to  the  discussion.  Job  had  met  loss  and  pain 
without  a  murmur ;  he  broke  down  when  long  musing  made  him 
realise  the  isolation  his  ruin  had  brought  him,  and  how  he  was  an 
outcast  from  intelligible  law.  He  recovers  his  self-control  when 
he  is  led  to  feel  that  his  burden  is  only  part  of  the  world-mystery 
of  Good  and  Evil,  for  the  solution  of  which  all  time  is  too  short. 

Two  sections  of  the  work  have  yet  to  be  considered  in  the 
present  connection,  the  prologue  and  the  epilogue.     From   the 
side  of  philosophy  no  part   of  Job   is   more   im-  Epilogue .  Prac. 
portant  than  the  brief  epilogue.     Other   sections  ticai  bearings  of 
suggest  distinct   solutions  of  the   problem   under  the  iuestion 
discussion.     But  when  a  question  is  so  wide  as  to  admit  of  no 
final  settlement,  but  only  of  tentative  treatment,  philosophy  can 
have  no  more  important  task  than  to  discover  a  practical  attitude 


36  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

which  we  may  assume  towards  it  while  advancing  slowly  towards 
theoretic  knowledge.  This  is  what  the  epilogue  does  in  its  pro- 
nouncement that  Job  has  been  right  and  his  friends  wrong.  As 
suggested  above,  this  can  have  no  other  meaning  than  to  imply 
that  the  bold  faith  of  a  Job,  which  could  reproach  his  God  as 
friend  reproaches  friend  where  the  Divine  dealings  seemed  unjust, 
was,  though  founded  on  ignorance,  more  acceptable  to  that  God 
than  the  servile  adoration  which  sought  to  twist  facts  in  order  to 
magnify  His  name.  The  deep  significance  of  such  a  pronounce- 
ment must  be  welcomed  by  every  school  of  thought ;  it  for  ever 
stamps  the  God  of  the  Bible  as  a  God  on  the  side  of  enquiry. 

But  before  this  principle  has  been  laid  down  in  the  epilogue, 
before  Job  and  his  friends  have  commenced  to  discuss  the  mys- 
tery of  suffering,  another  explanation  of  that  mys- 
Prologue:  Specu-         '    , 
lationuponaTran-  tery  has  been  suggested   to   our  thoughts  m  the 

scendentai  Expia-  prologue.  When  we  are  made  to  see  the  Powers 
of  Heaven  discussing  the  character  of  Job  as  if  it 
were  an  item  in  which  the  welfare  of  the  universe  was  concerned, 
and  contriving  visitations  of  suffering  as  means  of  testing  whether 
the  character  be  really  all  that  it  seems  to  be,  it  is  impossible  for 
our  minds  not  to  generalise,  and  wonder  whether  large  part  of  the 
visible  suffering  in  the  actual  world  be  not  a  probationary  visita- 
tion of  this  nature.  Here  then  there  is  another  solution  presented  : 
how  is  the  treatment  to  be  classified  from  our  immediate  point  of 
view?  The  thinker  has  other  weapons  besides  philosophic  dis- 
cussion. Philosophy  deals  with  that  which  can  be  known  by  its 
own  methods ;  but  the  thinker  may  recognise  a  region  outside 
this,  which  therefore  from  the  philosophic  point  of  view  is  the 
unknowable,  which  may  nevertheless  have  influences  operating 
upon  the  region  of  what  is  known.  In  reference  to  such  a  region 
he  will  not  employ  the  method  of  discussion,  but  rather  the  form 
of  philosophic  suggestion  that  has  come  to  be  called  'speculation.' 
The  prologue  to  Job  may  be  regarded  as  giving  the  authority  of 
Holy  Writ  to  reverent  speculation  upon  the  higher  mysteries. 
No  doubt  here  difference  of  interpretation  comes  in.  Those  who 


INTRODUCTION  37 

consider  that  the  first  two  chapters  of  Job  represent  an  historic 
fact  —  incidents  which  actually  happened  —  will  not  use  the  word 
*  speculation ' :  to  them  this  prologue  will  be  the  final  settlement 
of  the  whole  question.  But  the  great  majority  of  readers  will 
take  these  chapters  to  be  part  of  the  parable  into  which  the  his- 
tory of  Job  has  been  worked  up ;  the  incidents  in  heaven,  like  the 
incidents  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  they  will  understand  to  be  spirit- 
ually imagined,  not  historically  narrated.  And  these  will  recognise 
that  the  prologue  gives  completeness  to  the  Book  of  Job  viewed 
from  the  standpoint  of  philosophy ;  the  problem  of  human  suffer- 
ing, which  has  in  other  parts  of  the  book  been  treated  by  theory 
and  theory  modified,  by  negative  positions  and  reference  to  a 
wider  category,  and  even  by  pronouncement  upon  its  practical 
bearings,  has  a  further  illumination  cast  upon  it  by  a  speculation 
which  refers  the  origin  of  suffering  to  the  mysteries  of  the  super- 
natural world. 

I  have  spoken  of  science  as  well  as  philosophy.     Science  ob- 
serves nature  and  life  :  observation  of  nature  is  the 

Interest  of 
special  work  of  modern  science,  antiquity  turned   science: 

its  reflection  chiefly  on  human  life.     It  is  hardly  The  Land  Ques- 

.  a        tion 

necessary  to   point   out   that   proverb-like  reflec- 
tions on  society  and  life  form  large  part  of  the  material  out  of 
which  the  dialogue  in  Job  is  constructed.     I  will  be  content  with 
a  single  one  of  the  more  extended  illustrations.     It  is  remarkable 
that  the  whole  course  of  what  the  most  modern  thought  calls 
'the  land  question'  is  sketched  in  a  single  chapter  of 
Job.     The  patriarch   is   describing  what  seems  to  him 
the  misgovernment  of  the  world.    He  commences  with  the  en- 
croachments of  private  ownership  upon  the  common  land : 

There  are  that  remove  the  landmarks.  ...  a>  4 

They  turn  the  needy  out  of  the  way. 

There  is  consequently  the  formation  of  a  class  of  the  poor,  who 
are  either  driven  to  the  barren  regions,  or  become  a  mere  labour- 
ing class  without  rights  in  the  land  of  the  community. 


38  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

4,  5  The  poor  of  the  earth  hide  themselves  together : 

Behold,  as  wild  asses  in  the  desert 

They  go  forth  to  their  work,  seeking  diligently  for  meat ;   ' 

The  wilderness  yieldeth  them  food  for  their  children.  .  .  . 
1>  8  They  lie  all  night  naked  without  clothing, 

And  have  no  covering  in  the  cold. 

They  are  wet  with  the  showers  of  the  mountains, 

And  embrace  the  rock  for  want  of  a  shelter. 

Poverty,  Job  sees,  necessitates  borrowing,  and  the  fresh  distress 
that  is  its  natural  sequel. 

a»  3  They  violently  take  away  flocks  and  feed  them, 

They  drive  away  the  ass  of  the  fatherless, 
They  take  the  widow's  ox  for  a  pledge. 

Poverty  is  seen  side  by  side  with  wealth,  forced  into  close  relation- 
ship with  it  that  increases  the  distress  of  want. 

6  They  cut  his  provender  in  the  field; 

And  they  glean  the  vintage  of  the  wicked.  .  .  . 
10,  "  And  being  an-hungered  they  carry  the  sheaves ; 

They  make  oil  within  the  walls  of  these  men; 

They  tread  their  winepresses,  and  suffer  thirst. 

As  a  next  stage  we  get  the  crowding  of  population  in  cities,  with 
hints  of  fresh  distress  and  turbulence. 

"  From  out  of  the  populous  city  men  groan, 

And  the  soul  of  the  wounded  crieth  out, 
Yet  God  imputeth  it  not  for  folly. 

The  climax  comes  in  the  formation  of  a  purely  criminal  class. 

13-17  These  are  of  them  that  rebel  against  the  light; 

They  know  not  the  ways  thereof, 

Nor  abide  in  the  paths  thereof. 
The  murderer  riseth  with  the  light, 

He  killeth  the  poor  and  needy; 

And  in  the  night  he  is  as  a  thief. 
The  eye  also  of  the  adulterer  waiteth  for  the  twilight; 

Saying,  No  eye  shall  see  me; 

And  he  putteth  a  covering  on  his  face. 


INTRODUCTION  39 

In  the  dark  they  dig  through  houses : 

They  shut  themselves  up  in  the  daytime. 

They  know  not  the  light. 
For  the  morning  is  to  all  of  them 

As  the  shadow  of  death; 

For  they  know  the  terrors  of  the  shadow  of  death. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  when  Job  makes  his  general  vindication  he 
finds  a  climax  in  disowning  sins  against  the  rights 
and  duties  of  land. 

It  appears  then  that  both  philosophy  and  science  have  their 
representation  in  this  ancient  book  of  the  Bible.  Yet  every  reader 
will  feel  that  these  words  are  an  imperfect  descrip- 
tion of  the  matter  which  makes  up  the  poem  of 
Job.  Philosophy  is  based  upon  reason ;  but  in  the 
present  case  there  is  a  section  of  the  poem  which  represents  God 
himself  as  entering  into  the  discussion,  and  holding  up  a  view 
of  the  truth  from  which  no  one  appeals.  It  is  clear  that  in  the 
Book  of  Job  yet  another  element  of  Revelation  mingles  side  by 
side  with  Philosophy ;  and  the  new  element  implies  a  new  divi- 
sion of  literature.  The  student  who  comes  to  the  Bible  from 
other  literatures  must  be  prepared  to  recognise  a  special  literary 
type,  that  of  Prophecy :  a  department  which  is  distinguished  from 
others  not  by  form  —  for  Prophecy  may  take  any  form  —  but  by 
spirit,  its  differentia  being  that  it  presents  itself  as  an  authoritative 
Divine  message.  The  literary  study  of  the  Bible  has  no  more 
important  task  than  that  of  describing  Prophecy  from  the  literary 
point  of  view. 

The  varieties  of  literary  form  illustrated  in  the  work  we  are 
considering  are  not  yet  exhausted.  We  have  called  the  Book  of 
Job  a  drama  and  a  philosophic  discussion;  yet 
neither  of  these  descriptions  will  account  for  the 
strange  character  of  the  individual  speeches  which 
strikes  every  reader.  Their  length,  if  nothing  else,  would  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  speeches  of  other  dramas ;  and  their  tone 
is  equally  far  removed  from  the  tone  of  philosophic  disquisition. 


40  LITERARY  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

They  have  in  them  plenty  of  dramatic  force,  and  also  clear  and 
effective  strokes  of  argument.  But  they  do  not  stop  with  these  ; 
the  dramatic  thrust  gives  place  to  ornate  moralising  which,  from 
the  dramatic  point  of  view,  seems  so  much  waste ;  and  the  point 
of  the  argument  is  again  and  again  lost  in  an  accumulation  of 
beautiful  irrelevancy.  He  would  be  a  very  perverse  reader  who 
should  cry  out  against  these  characteristics  Qijob  as  literary  faults  : 
on  the  contrary,  they  are  evidence  that  the  character  of  the  work 
is  insufficiently  described  by  the  terms  drama  and  discussion.  A 
further  element  comes  in  of  Rhetoric  :  not  in  the  debased  sense 
which  the  word  is  coming  to  bear  to  modern  ears,  but  the  Rhetoric 
of  antiquity  which  was  the  delight  in  speech  for  its  own  sake. 
Each  delivery  of  a  speaker  in  the  poem  of  Job  is  to  be  looked 
upon  as  a  work  of  art  in  itself.  If  Job  in  the  course  of  the  dis- 
cussion interjects  the  parenthetic  thought,  "  What  is  the  good  of 
arguing?"  this  parenthesis  is  found  to  be  a  finished 
meditation  of  twenty-eight  lines.  The  speech  in  which 
it  occurs  is  answered  by  Bildad,  and  he  meets  Job's  eloquence  by 
a  tour-de-force  of  imagery  painting  the  whole  universe  watch- 
ing to  destroy  the  sinner,  and  this  piece  of  word-beauty 

zviii.  5-31  ,.  . 

runs  to  thirty-four  lines.  Zophar  in  the  same  round  of 
discussion  varies  the  beauty  by  a  string  of  wise  saws  on  the  same 
topic,  and  these  extend  to  sixty  lines.  All  this  is  over  and  above 
the  portions  of  the  speeches  which  are  strictly  argument- 
ative. It  is  clear  then  that  the  personages  of  the  poem 
answer  one  another,  not  only  with  argument  and  dramatic  passion, 
but  also  with  counterpoises  of  rhetoric  weight.  The  whole  be- 
comes like  a  controversy  carried  on  in  sonnets,  a  discussion  waged 
in  perorations.  Once  more  the  many-sidedness  of  the  Bible  is 
apparent;  and  the  student  who  would  fully  appreciate  it  must 
train  himself  in  the  literary  interest  of  Rhetoric. 

One  word  more  has  yet  to  be  said.  The  literary  varieties  men- 
tioned so  far  are  such  as  appeal  chiefly  to  the  mind.  But  there 
is  one  main  distinction  in  literature  that  appeals  to  the  eye  and 
the  ear  also ;  the  distinction  between  the  'straight-forward '  speech 


INTRODUCTION  41 

called  '  prose,'  and  that  kind  of  speech  which  '  measures  '  itself 
into  metres  and  verses.     A  glance  at  the  Book  of 
Job   in   any  properly  printed  version   shows  that  verification 
this  work,  like  the   plays   of  Shakespeare   or  the 
later  stories  of  William  Morris,  presents  an  interchange  between 
the  two  fundamental  forms  of  language,  being  a  dialogue  in  verse 
enclosed  in  a  frame  of  prose  story.     When  however  the  English 
reader  calls  in  his  ear  to  supplement  his  eye,  he  finds  that  the 
verse  passages  of  Job  differ  essentially  from  what  he  is  accustomed 
to  find  in  English  verse.     There  is  no  rhyme,  nor  do  the  lines 
correspond  in  meters  or   syllables.     The  Book  of  Job,  then,  in 
addition  to  its  other  literary  suggestiveness,  raises  the  elementary 
questions  of  Biblical  versification. 

The  purpose  of  this  Introduction  is  now  accomplished.  I  have 
engaged  the  reader's  attention  with  a  single  book  of  the  Bible ; 
we  have  seen  that,  over  and  above  what  it  yields  to 
the  theological  faculty  or  the  religious  sense,  the  ™*™f  the  whole 
Book  of  Job  is  a  piece  of  literature,  the  analysis  of 
which  brings  us  into  contact  with  all  the  leading  varieties  of 
literary  form.  What  the  Introduction  has  done  in  reference  to  a 
single  book,  the  work  as  a  whole  is  to  do  in  reference  to  the 
whole  Bible,  proceeding  however  by  a  method  more  regular  than 
has  been  necessary  so  far.  The  work  will  be  divided  into  six 
books.  The  first  book  will  start  with  the  point  last  reached  — 
Biblical  Versification  —  and  widening  from  this  will  search  out 
other  distinctions  which  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  Classification 
of  Literature  under  such  heads  as  Lyric,  Epic,  Philosophic,  Pro- 
phetic, Rhetoric.  The  subsequent  books  will  take  up  these  depart- 
ments one  by  one,  illustrating  each,  with  the  subdivisions  of  each, 
from  the  most  notable  examples  in  the  Sacred  Writings.  The 
reader  who  has  thus  given  his  attention  to  the  general  literary 
aspects  of  the  Bible  will  then  find,  in  an  Appendix,  Tabular 
arrangements  into  which  the  whole  of  the  Bible  enters,  intended 
to  assist  him  when  he  desires  to  read  the  Sacred  Writings  from  the 
literary  point  of  view. 


BOOK  FIRST 

FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 


CHAPTER  PAGB 

I.    THE  FUNDAMENTAL  LITERARY  FORM  OF  VERSIFICATION 

AS  SEEN  IN   THE  BlBLE 45 

II.    THE  LOWER  PARALLELISM  OF  RHYTHM  AND  THE  HIGHER 

PARALLELISM  OF  INTERPRETATION      ....      64 

III.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  HIGHER  LITERARY  FORMS  IN 

UNIVERSAL  LITERATURE       .        .        .        .  -74 

IV.  APPLICATION  OF  LITERARY  CLASSIFICATION  TO  BIBLICAL 

LITERATURE 83 


CHAPTER   I 

THE    FUNDAMENTAL    LITERARY    FORM    OF    VERSIFICATION    AS 
SEEN    IN    THE    BIBLE 

THE  Bible  is  the  worst-printed  book  in  the  world.     No  other 
monument  of  ancient  or  modern  literature  suffers  the  fate  of  being 
put  before  us  in  a  form  that  makes  it  impossible, 
without  strong  effort  and  considerable  training,  to  scripture  ob™  ° 
take  in  elements  of  literary  structure  which  in  all  scured  by  ordi- 


other  books  are  conveyed  directly  to  the  eye  in  a 


manner  impossible  to  mistake. 

By  universal  consent  the  authors  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
included  men  who,  over  and  above  qualifications  of  a  more 
sacred  nature,  possessed  literary  power  of  the  highest  order.  But 
between  their  time  and  ours  the  Bible  has  passed  through  what 
may  be  called  an  Age  of  Commentary,  extending  over  fifteen 
centuries  and  more.  During  this  long  period  form,  which  should 
be  the  handmaid  of  matter,  was  more  and  more  overlooked  ; 
reverent,  keen,  minute  analysis  and  exegesis,  with  interminable 
verbal  discussion,  gradually  swallowed  up  the  sense  of  literary 
beauty.  When  the  Bible  emerged  from  this  Age  of  Commentary, 
its  artistic  form  was  lost;  rabbinical  commentators  had  divided 
it  into  '  chapters,'  and  mediaeval  translators  into  '  verses,'  which 
not  only  did  not  agree  with,  but  often  ran  counter  to,  the  origi- 
nal structure.  The  force  of  this  unliterary  tradition  proved  too 
strong  even  for  the  literary  instincts  of  King  James's  translators. 
Accordingly,  one  who  reads  only  the  *  Authorized  Version  '  incurs 
a  double  danger  :  if  he  reads  his  Bible  by  chapters  he  will,  with- 
out knowing  it,  be  often  commencing  in  the  middle  of  one  com- 

45 


46         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

position  and  leaving  off  in  the  middle  of  another;  while,  in 
in  particular-  whatever  way  he  may  read  it,  he  will  know  no  dis- 
verse  printed  as  tinction  between  prose  and  verse.  It  is  only  in 
our  own  day  that  a  better  state  of  things  has 
arisen.  The  Church  of  England  led  the  way  by  issuing  its  '  New 
Lectionary ' ;  the  new  lessons  will  be  found  to  differ  from  the  old 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  the  passages  marked  out  for  public  reading 
are  no  longer  limited  by  the  beginnings  and  endings  of  chapters. 
Later  still  the  '  Revised  Version '  of  the  Bible,  whatever  it  may 
have  left  undone,  has  at  all  events  made  an  attempt  to  rescue 
Biblical  poetry  from  the  reproach  of  being  printed  as  prose. 

It  is  to  the  latter  of  these  two  points  —  the  distinction  between 
verse  and  prose  —  that  I  address  myself  in  the  present  chapter. 

No  doubt  the  confusion  of  the  two  would  have 
Biblical  Versifl-  . 

cation  based  on      been  impossible,  were  it  not  that  the  versification 

parallelism  of  of  the  Bible  is  of  a  kind  totally  unlike  that  which 
prevails  in  English  literature.  Biblical  verse  is 
made  neither  by  rhyme  nor  by  numbering  of  syllables  ;  its  long- 
lost  secret  was  discovered  by  Bishop  Lowth  more  than  a  cen- 
tury after  King  James's  time.  Its  underlying  principle  is  found 
to  be  the  symmetry  of  clauses  in  a  verse,  which  has  come  to  be 
called  '  Parallelism.' 

Hast  thou  given  the  horse  his  might? 

Hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with  the  quivering  mane  ? 

Hast  thou  made  him  to  leap  as  a  locust? 

The  glory  of  his  snorting  is  terrible. 

He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength : 

He  goeth  out  to  meet  the  armed  men. 

He  mocketh  at  fear,  and  is  not  dismayed ; 

Neither  turneth  he  back  from  the  sword. 

The  quiver  rattleth  against  him, 

The  flashing  spear  and  the  javelin. 

He  swalloweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage; 

Neither  standeth  he  still  at  the  voice  of  the  trumpet. 

As  oft  as  the  trumpet  soundeth  he  saith,  Aha ! 

And  he  smelleth  the  battle  afar  off, 

The  thunder  of  the  captains,  and  the  shouting. 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  47 

It  is  abundantly  clear,  first,  that  this  is  a  passage  of  the  highest 
rhythmic  beauty ;  secondly,  that  the  effect  depends  neither  on 
rhyme  nor  metre.  Like  the  swing  of  a  pendulum  to  and  fro,  like 
the  tramp  of  an  army  marching  in  step,  the  versification  of  the 
Bible  moves  with  a  rhythm  of  parallel  lines. 

How  closely  the  effect  of  this  versification  is  bound  up  with  the 
parallelism  of  the  clauses,  the  reader  may  satisfy  himself  by  a 
simple  experiment.  Let  him  take  such  a  psalm  as  the  one  hun- 
dred and  fifth;  and,  commencing  (say)  with  the  eighth  verse, 
let  him  read  on,  omitting  the  second  line  of  each  couplet :  what 
he  reads  will  then  make  excellent  historic  prose. 

He  hath  remembered  his  covenant  for  ever :  the  covenant  which  he 
made  with  Abraham,  and  confirmed  the  same  unto  Jacob  for  a 
statute,  saying,  "  Unto  thee  will  I  give  the  land  of  Canaan,"  when 
they  were  but  a  few  men  in  number,  and  they  went  about  from 
nation  to  nation.  He  suffered  no  man  to  do  them  wrong,  saying, 
"  Touch  not  mine  anointed  ones." 

Let  him  now  read  again,  putting  in  the  lines  omitted :  the  prose 
becomes  transformed  into  verse  full  of  the  rhythm  and  lilt  of  a 
march. 

He  hath  remembered  his  covenant  for  ever, 

The  word  which  he  commanded  to  a  thousand  generations; 
The  covenant  which  he  made  with  Abraham, 

And  his  oath  unto  Isaac; 
And  confirmed  the  same  unto  Jacob  for  a  statute, 

To  Israel  for  an  everlasting  covenant : 
Saying,  "  Unto  thee  will  I  give  the  land  of  Canaan, 

The  lot  of  your  inheritance  "  : 
When  they  were  but  a  few  men  in  number; 

Yea,  very  few,  and  sojourners  in  it; 
And  they  went  about  from  nation  to  nation, 

From  one  kingdom  to  another  people. 
He  suffered  no  man  to  do  them  wrong; 

Yea,  he  reproved  kings  for  their  sakes; 
Saying,  "  Touch  not  mine  anointed  ones, 

And  do  my  prophets  no  harm." 


48 


FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 


The  alphabet,  then,  of  Scriptural  versification  will  be  the  figures 
The  Couplet  and  °f  Parallelism.  Of  these  figures  the  simplest  and 
Triplet  most  fundamental  are  the  Couplet  and  Triplet.  A 

Couplet  consists  of  two  parallel  clauses,  a  Triplet  of  three. 

The  LORD  of  Hosts  is  with  us; 
The  God  of  Jacob  is  our  refuge. 

He  maketh  wars  to  cease  unto  the  end  of  the  earth ; 
He  breaketh  the  bow,  and  cutteth  the  spear  in  sunder; 
He  burneth  the  chariots  in  the  fire. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  musical  rendering  of  the  psalms  by 
chants,  which  in  some  points  is  carried  to  such  a  degree  of  nicety, 
entirely  ignores  this  foundation  difference  of  Couplet  and  Triplet, 
the  same  chant  being  sung  to  both.  To  take  a  typical  case. 


The  LORD  of 


Hosts 


is        with  us 


i 


i 


The  GOD  of 


Ja   -   cob        is        our    refuge. 


This  is  correct,  because  a  piece  of  music  which  is  two-fold  in 
its  structure  is  sung  to  a  couplet  verse.  But  presently  the  same 
music  will  be  sung  to  the  triplet  verse. 


He  maketh  wars  to  cease  unto  the  end  of  the  earth  : 
He  breaketh  the  bow  and  CUTTETH  the 


spear      in      sunder. 


He  BURNeth  the 


char  -  iots       in        the    fire. 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE 


49 


Every  ear  must  detect  that  this  is  a  clumsy  makeshift :  it  runs 
counter  to  a  rhythmic  distinction  as  fundamental  as  the  distinction 
of  common  time  and  triple  time  in  music.  The  remedy  is  very 
simple.  Chants  of  this  nature  are  made  up  of  two  parts. 


I 


As  such  they  are  only  fitted  to  couplet  verses.  For  the  triplet 
verse  a  variant  is  needed  to  the  first  part,  sufficiently  like  it  to  be 
recognised,  yet  differing  in  a  note  or  two.  For 


a  simple  variant  would  be 


The  couplet  verse  would  be  sung  as  before ;   for  the  triplet  the 
variant  would  be  inserted  between  the  first  and  second  parts. 

(first  part) 


He  maketh  wars  to  CEASE  unto  the 
(variant) 


end       of  the    earth. 


He  breaketh  the  bow  and  CUTTETH  the  spear        in        sunder, 

(second  part) 


p 


I 


He  BURNeth  the 


char  -  iota        in        the        fire. 


50         FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

In  an  Appendix l  I  present  at  full  length  the  system  of  metric 
parallelism  which  underlies  Scriptural  verse  :  for  readers  who  are 
not  afraid  of  technicalities  the  study  of  such  a  system  will  richly 
repay  itself  in  increased  susceptibility  to  the  rhythmic  cadence 
of  Biblical  poetry.  But  even  the  most  general  reader  may  be 
interested  to  review  at  this  point  the  broader  effects  of  Biblical 
versification. 

Besides  the  Couplet  and  Triplet  there  are  other  simple  figures 

of  parallelism,  such  as  the  Quatrain,  the  Sextet,  the 

Octet,  —  terms  which   explain  themselves.      Such 

figures  are  another  name  for  the  '  stanzas '  of  our 

modern  hymn-books.     A  psalm,  like  a  modern  hymn,  may  often 

be  made  up  of  a  succession  of  similar  stanzas. 

Psalm  cxxi          I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  mountains : 
From  whence  shall  my  help  come  ? 
My  help  cometh  from  the  LORD, 
Which  made  heaven  and  earth. 

He  will  not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved : 
He  that  keepeth  thee  will  not  slumber. 
Behold,  he  that  keepeth  Israel 
Shall  neither  slumber  nor  sleep. 

The  LORD  is  thy  keeper : 
The  LORD  is  thy  shade  upon  thy  right  hand. 
The  sun  shall  not  smite  thee  by  day, 
Nor  the  moon  by  night. 

The  LORD  shall  keep  thee  from  all  evil; 

He  shall  keep  thy  soul. 

The  LORD  shall  keep  thy  going  out  and  thy  coming  in, 

From  this  time  forth  and  for  evermore. 

We  rise  to  a  higher  plane  of  rhythmic  effect  in  Antistrophie 
structure.  The  word  is  Greek,  and  the  spirit  of  this  beautiful 
form  of  structure  is  best  caught  from  the  complete  realisation  of 
it  in  Greek  lyrics.  A  Greek  ode  was  performed  by  a  body  of 

l  Appendix  III,  page  526. 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  51 

singers  whose  evolutions  as  they  sang  a  stanza  carried  them  from 
the  altar  towards  the  right :  then  turning  round  they  performed 
an  answering  stanza,  repeating  their  movements, 
until  its  close  brought  them  to  the  altar  from 
which  they  had  started.  Then  a  stanza  would  take 
them  to  the  left  of  the  altar,  and  its  answering  stanza  would  bring 
them  back  to  the  starting-point :  and  of  such  pairs  of  stanzas  an 
ode  was  normally  made  up.  From  a  Greek  word  meaning  '  a 
turning '  the  first  stanza  of  a  pair  was  called  a  strophe,  its  answering 
stanza  an  antistrophe :  and  the  metrical  rhythms  of  the  antistrophe 
reproduced  those  of  the  corresponding  strophe  line  by  line,  though 
the  rhythm  might  be  wholly  changed  between  one  pair  of  stanzas 
and  another.  Hebrew  lyrics  contain  numerous  examples  of  this 
disposition  of  stanzas  in  pairs,  the  two  stanzas  of  a  pair  agreeing 
in  number  of  parallel  lines. 

Strophe  i 

?salm  xxx    I  will  extol  thee,  O  LORD  ;   for  thou  hast  raised  me  up, 
And  hast  not  made  my  foes  to  rejoice  over  me. 

0  LORD  my  God, 

1  cried  unto  thee,  and  thou  hast  healed  me. 

O  LORD,  thou  hast  brought  up  my  soul  from  Sheol : 

Thou  hast  kept  me  alive,  that  I  should  not  go  down  to  the  pit. 

Antistrophe 

Sing  praise  unto  the  LORD,  O  ye  saints  of  his, 
And  give  thanks  to  his  holy  name. 
For  his  anger  is  but  for  a  moment; 
In  his  favour  is  life : 
Weeping  may  tarry  for  the  night, 
But  joy  cometh  in  the  morning. 

Strophe  2 

As  for  me,  I  said  in  my  prosperity, 
I  shall  never  be  moved. 
Thou,  LORD,  of  thy  favour  hadst  made  my  mountain  to  stand  strong : 

Antistrophe 

Thou  didst  hide  thy  face ;  I  was  troubled. 
I  cried  to  thee,  O  LORD; 
And  unto  the  LORD  I  made  supplication : 


52         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

Strophe  j 

"  What  profit  is  there  in  my  blood  when  I  go  down  to  the  pit? 
Shall  the  dust  praise  thee  ?     Shall  it  declare  thy  truth  ? 
Hear,  O  LORD,  and  have  mercy  upon  me : 
LORD,  be  thou  my  helper." 

Antistrophe 

Thou  hast  turned  for  me  my  mourning  into  dancing; 

Thou  hast  loosed  my  sackcloth,  and  girded  me  with  gladness : 

To  the  end  that  my  glory  may  sing  praise  to  thee,  and  not  be  silent. 

O  LORD  my  God,  I  will  give  thanks  unto  thee  for  ever. 

It  is  found  quite  consistent  with  this  antistrophic  structure,  alike 
in  Hebrew  and  Greek  poetry,  that  to  the  balanced  stanzas  should 

be  added  an  independent  stanza  of  different  form, 
Concisions118  ^  b?  wa?  of  Introduction  or  Conclusion.  A  good 

example  is  a  poem  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs  which 
might  be  entitled  The  Two  Paths.  Its  strophe  and  antistrophe 
consist  of  ten-line  figures,  varying  similarly  between  longer  and 
shorter  lines ;  the  conclusion  is  a  quatrain.  This  form  is  a  reflex 
of  the  thought  of  the  poem  :  the  strophe  describes  the  path  of  the 
just,  the  antistrophe  the  path  of  the  wicked ;  the  brief  conclusion 
then  blends  the  two  ideas  in  a  common  image. 


Proverbs  iv.  10  THE  TWO   PATHS 

Hear,  O  my  son,  and  receive  my  sayings; 

And  the  years  of  thy  life  shall  be  many. 

I  have  taught  thee  in  the  way  of  wisdom; 

I  have  led  thee  in  paths  of  uprightness. 

When  thou  goest,  thy  steps  shall  not  be  straitened; 

And  if  thou  runnest,  thou  shalt  not  stumble. 

Take  fast  hold  of  instruction; 

Let  her  not  go : 

Keep  her; 

For  she  is  thy  life. 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  53 

Enter  not  into  the  path  of  the  wicked, 
And  walk  not  in  the  way  of  evil  men. 

Avoid  it, 

Pass  not  by  it; 

Turn  from  it, 

And  pass  on. 

For  they  sleep  not,  except  they  have  done  mischief; 
And  their  sleep  is  taken  away,  unless  they  cause  some  to  fall. 
For  they  eat  the  bread  of  wickedness, 
And  drink  the  wine  of  violence. 

But  the  path  of  the  righteous  is  as  the  light  of  dawn, 
That  shineth  more  and  more  unto  the  perfect  day. 

The  way  of  the  wicked  is  as  darkness : 
They  know  not  at  what  they  stumble. 

In  contrast  with  this  Antistrophic  effect  is  the  structure  denomi- 
nated Strophic  :  where  a  poem  is  allowed  to  fall  into  well-marked 
divisions,  which  have,  however,  no  distinct  relations 
with  one  another  as  regards  length  or  parallelism,    structure 
By  an  awkwardness  of  nomenclature,  such  irregular 
divisions  have  come  to  be  called  '  strophes ' :    it  is   too  late  to 
change  the  usage,  but  the  reader  must  be  on  the  watch  to  distin- 
guish the  '  strophic  structure,'  where  the  stanzas  may  be  unequal, 
from  the  '  antistrophic  structure,'  in  which  the  two  stanzas  of  a 
pair  are  exact  counterparts.     A  simple  example  of  such  division 
by  natural  cleavage  only  will  be  afforded  by  the  twentieth  psalm. 

Strophe  i  —  The  People 

The  LORD  answer  thee  in  the  day  of  trouble;  Psalm  zz 

The  name  of  the  God  of  Jacob  set  thee  up  on  high; 

Send  thee  help  from  the  sanctuary, 

And  strengthen  thee  out  of  Zion; 

Remember  all  thy  offerings, 

And  accept  thy  burnt  sacrifice; 

Grant  thee  thy  heart's  desire, 

And  fulfil  all  thy  counsel. 

We  will  triumph  in  thy  salvation, 

And  in  the  name  of  our  God  we  will  set  up  our  banners : 

The  LORD  fulfil  all  thy  petitions. 


54         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

Strophe  2  —  The  King 

Now  know  I  that  the  LORD  saveth  his  anointed; 
He  will  answer  him  from  his  holy  heaven 
With  the  saving  strength  of  his  right  hand. 

Strophe  j  —  The  People 

Some  trust  in  chariots,  and  some  in  horses : 

But  we  will  make  mention  of  the  name  of  the  LORD  our  God. 

They  are  bowed  down  and  fallen : 

But  we  are  risen,  and  stand  upright. 

O  LORD,  save  the  king; 

And  answer  us  when  we  call. 

Where  parallelism  applies  to  more  than  two  lines  or  stanzas  a 
very  interesting  modification  becomes  possible.  This  is  Inversion, 
or  Introversion ;  with  the  parallelism  is  combined  an  inversion  of 

order,  thus : 

A 

B 

BB 
AA 

An  example  of  antistrophic  inversion  is  found  in  the  hundred 
and   fourteenth  psalm,   which   thought    and    form    combine  to 

....     . .  make  one  of  the  most  striking  of  Hebrew  lyrics. 

Antistrophic  * 

inversion  It  is  a  song  inspired,  not  only  by  the  deliverance 

from  Egypt,  but  also  by  the  new  conception  of  Deity 
which  that  deliverance  exhibited  to  the  world.  In  the  age  of  the 
exodus  the  prevailing  conception  of  a  god  was  that  of  a  being 
sacred  to  a  particular  territory,  out  of  the  bounds  of  which  terri- 
tory the  god's  power  did  not  extend.  But  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  presented  to  the  world  the  spectacle  of  a  nation  moving 
from  country  to  country  and  carrying  the  presence  of  their  God 
with  them ;  it  was  no  longer  the  land  of  Goshen,  but  the  nation  of 
Israel  itself  that  constituted  the  sanctuary  and  dominion  of  Jeho- 
vah. The  wonder  of  this  conception  the  psalm  expresses  by  the 
favourite  Hebrew  image  of  nature  in  convulsion ;  and  the  effect  of 
inversion  in  giving  shape  (so  to  speak)  to  the  whole  thought  of  the 
poem  may  be  conveyed  to  the  eye  by  the  following  scheme : 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  55 

A  new  conception  of  Deity ! 

Nature  convulsed ! 

Why  Nature  convulsed? 
At  the  new  conception  of  Deity. 

Those  phrases  sura  up  the  thought  of  the  successive  stanzas,  which 
are  so  related  to  one  another  that  the  first  strophe  is  followed  by 
a  second,  and  the  antistrophe  to  the  second  strophe  precedes  the 
antistrophe  to  the  first. 

Strophe  i 

When  Israel  went  forth  out  of  Egypt, 

The  house  of  Jacob  from  a  people  of  strange  language; 

Judah  became  his  sanctuary, 

Israel  his  dominion. 

Strophe  2 

The  sea  saw  it  and  fled; 
Jordan  was  driven  back. 
The  mountains  skipped  like  rams, 
The  little  hills  like  young  sheep. 

Antistrophe  2 

What  aileth  thee,  O  thou  sea,  that  thou  fleest? 
Thou  Jordan,  that  thou  turnest  back? 
Ye  mountains,  that  ye  skip  like  rams? 
Ye  little  hills,  like  young  sheep? 

Antistrophe  z 

Tremble,  thou  earth,  at  THE  PRESENCE  OF  THE  LORD, 
At  the  presence  of  the  God  of  Jacob; 
Which  turned  the  rock  into  a  pool  of  water, 
The  flint  into  a  fountain  of  waters ! 

Such  Inversion,  it  is  worth  noting,  may  obtain  within  the  limits 

of  a  single  figure.     In  one  quatrain  the  lines  will 

,    Inverted  Figures 
run  alternately,  the  third  parallel  with  the  first  and 

the  fourth  with  the  second ;  another  will  be  a  Quatrain  Inverted, 
because  the  opening  and  closing  lines  are  parallel,  and  the  middle 
lines  go  together. 


56         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LIT  ERA  TURE 

Weep  for  the  dead, 

For  light  hath  failed  him; 
And  weep  for  a  fool, 

For  understanding  hath  failed  him. 

Weep  more  sweetly  for  the  dead, 

Because  he  hath  found  rest; 

But  the  life  of  a  fool 
Is  worse  than  death. 

As  we  have  Quatrain  and  Quatrain  Inverted,  so  we  have  sextets 
that  may  be  Double  Triplets  or  Triplets  Reversed. 

Ask,  and  it  shall  be  given  you; 
Seek,  and  ye  shall  find; 

Knock,  and  it  shall  be  opened  unto  you. 
For  every  one  that  asketh  receiveth, 
And  he  that  seeketh  findeth, 

And  to  him  that  knocketh  it  shall  be  opened. 

The  eye  catches  what  the  ear  confirms  in  this  arrangement :  how 
the  first  line  of  the  second  triplet  balances  the  first  line  of  the 
first  triplet,  the  second  the  second,  and  the  third  the  third.  But 
in  what  follows  the  order  of  the  second  triplet  is  reversed,  so 
that  the  beginning  of  the  whole  corresponds  with  the  end,  and 
the  middle  lines  with  one  another : 

No  servant  can  serve  two  masters : 
For  either  he  will  hate  the  one, 
And  love  the  other; 
Or  else  he  will  hold  to  one, 
And  despise  the  other. 
Ye  cannot  serve  God  and  mammon. 

Two  forms  of  parallelism  are  especially  attractive  to  the  genius 
of  Hebrew  literature.    One  is  the  Envelope  Figure,  The  Envelope 
by  which  a  series  of  parallel  lines  running  to  any  Fieure 
length  are  enclosed  between  an  identical  (or  equivalent)  opening 
and  close. 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  57 

By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them. 

Do  men  gather  grapes  of  thorns? 

Or  figs  of  thistles  ? 

Even  so  every  good  tree  bringeth  forth  good  fruit, 

But  the  corrupt  tree  bringeth  forth  evil  fruit  : 

A  good  tree  cannot  bring  forth  evil  fruit, 

Neither  can  a  corrupt  tree  bring  forth  good  fruit. 

Every  tree  that  bringeth  not  forth  good  fruit 

Is  hewn  down,  and  cast  into  the  fire. 
Therefore  by  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them. 

The  figure  in  its  completest  form  belongs  rather  to  the  oratory 
than  the  poetry  of  the  Bible.1  An  interesting  modification  of  it 
characterises  some  of  the  most  popular  of  the  psalms ;  in  these 
cases  the  close  is  not  a  repetition  of  the  opening,  but  the  opening 
and  dose  make  a  unity  which  the  parallel  clauses  develop.  The 
question  with  which  the  fifteenth  psalm  has  commenced  is  answered 
in  the  last  verse  ;  but  it  is  the  intervening  clauses  which  give  that 
answer  its  significance. 

LORD,  who  shall  sojourn  in  thy  tabernacle? 
Who  shall  dwell  in  thy  holy  hill? 

He  that  walketh  uprightly, 
And  worketh  righteousness, 
And  speaketh  truth  in  his  heart. 

He  that  slandereth  not  with  his  tongue, 

Nor  doeth  evil  to  his  friend, 

Nor  taketh  up  a  reproach  against  his  neighbour. 

In  whose  eyes  a  reprobate  is  despised ; 
But  he  honoureth  them  that  fear  the  LORD. 

He  that  sweareth  to  his  own  hurt,  and  changeth  not, 
He  that  putteth  not  out  his  money  to  usury, 
Nor  taketh  reward  against  the  innocent. 

He  that  doeth  these  things  shall  never  be  moved. 
1  See,  however,  an  exact  specimen  in  Psalm  viii  (below,  page  66). 


58         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

It  is  but  a  slight  variation  from  this  to  find  in  the  twenty-third 
psalm  the  beautiful  images  of  Divine  protection,  which  make  the 
body  of  the  poem,  'enveloped'  by  an  opening  couplet,  simply 
stating  the  thought  of  Jehovah's  guardianship,  and  a  closing  coup- 
let, which  emphasizes  the  thought  as  a  possession  for  all  life 
through. 

The  LORD  is  my  shepherd; 
I  shall  not  want. 

He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures  : 

He  leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters. 

He  restoreth  my  soul  : 

He  guideth  me  in  the  paths  of  righteousness  for  his  name's  sake. 

Yea,  though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death, 

I  will  fear  no  evil; 

For  thou  art  with  me  : 

Thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  comfort  me. 

Thou  preparest  a  table  before  me 
In  the  presence  of  mine  enemies  : 
Thou  hast  anointed  my  head  with  oil; 
My  cup  runneth  over. 

Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life  : 
And  I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  LORD  for  ever. 

Even  more  characteristically  Hebrew  is  the  Pendulum  Figure. 
Later  on  we  shall   see   how   this   mode   of  thought   penetrates 
through  the  philosophy  and  prophecy  of  the  Bible. 
hend  -^ut  even  *n  a  simPle  tyric  tne  rhythm  may  be  made 


by  a  swaying  to  and  fro  between  two  thoughts. 
Here  is  a  part  of  Wisdom's  Cry  of  Warning  in  an  early  chapter 
of  Proverbs  :  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lines  indented  to  the  right 
depict  the  guilty  neglect  of  warning,  those  indented  to  the  left  are 
occupied  with  the  terrible  retribution  ;  while  the  alternation  of  the 
two  makes  the  unity  of  the  figure. 

Proverbs  i.  34  Because  I  have  called,  and  ye  refused; 

I  have  stretched  out  my  hand, 
And  no  man  regarded; 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  59 

But  ye  have  set  at  nought  all  my  counsel, 

And  would  none  of  my  reproof: 
I  also  will  laugh  in  the  day  of  your  calamity; 
I  will  mock  when  your  fear  cometh; 
When  your  fear  cometh  as  a  storm, 
And  your  calamity  cometh  on  as  a  whirlwind; 
When  distress  and  anguish  come  upon  you. 

Then  shall  they  call  upon  me, 
But  I  will  not  answer; 

They  shall  seek  me  diligently, 
But  they  shall  not  find  me. 

For  that  they  hated  knowledge, 

And  did  not  choose  the  fear  of  the  LORD  : 

They  would  none  of  my  counsel; 

They  despised  all  my  reproof: 

Therefore  shall  they  eat  of  the  fruit  of  their  own  way, 
And  be  filled  with  their  own  devices. 
For  the  backsliding  of  the  simple  shall  slay  them, 
And  the  prosperity  of  fools  shall  destroy  them. 

Whatever  may  be  the  particular  structure  at  any  point  of  Bibli- 
cal poetry  the  device  of  the  Refrain  may  be  used  to  emphasize, 

by  its  recurrence,  the  rhythmic  divisions.     In  the 

The  Refrain 
forty-sixth  psalm  the  refrain  —  a  shout  of  triumph 

—  brings  each  stanza  to  a  climax.  It  has,  however,  dropped  out 
by  accident  from  the  first  stanza  in  the  received  text,  and  must  be 
restored.1 

God  is  our  refuge  and  strength,  Psalm  xlvi 

A  very  present  help  in  trouble. 
Therefore  will  we  not  fear,  though  the  earth  do  change, 

And  though  the  mountains  be  moved  in  the  heart  of  the  seas; 
Though  the  waters  thereof  roar  and  be  troubled, 

Though  the  mountains  shake  with  the  swelling  thereof. 
THE  LORD  OF  HOSTS  is  WITH  us; 
THE  GOD  OF  JACOB  is  OUR  REFUGE! 

1  On  the  general  subject  of  textual  emendation,  I  would  lay  down  the  principle 
that,  where  the  sense  is  affected  by  a  proposed  change,  it  is  prudent  to  be  con- 
servative and  chary  of  admitting  it.  But  where  (as  with  a  repetition)  it  is  only  a 
question  of  form,  the  long  period  of  tradition  mentioned  above,  during  which  the 
literary  form  of  Scripture  was  overlooked,  justifies  us  in  expecting  many  omissions 
and  misplacements. 


60         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

There  is  a  river,  the  streams  whereof  make  glad  the  city  of  God, 

The  holy  place  of  the  tabernacles  of  the  Most  High. 
God  is  in  the  midst  of  her;   she  shall  not  be  moved: 

God  shall  help  her,  and  that  right  early. 
The  nations  raged,  the  kingdoms  were  moved : 
He  uttered  his  voice,  the  earth  melted. 
THE  LORD  OF  HOSTS  is  WITH  us; 
THE  GOD  OF  JACOB  is  OUR  REFUGE! 

Come,  behold  the  works  of  the  LORD, 

What  desolations  he  hath  made  in  the  earth. 
He  maketh  wars  to  cease  unto  the  end  of  the  earth; 

He  breaketh  the  bow,  and  cutteth  the  spear  in  sunder; 

He  burneth  the  chariots  in  the  fire. 
"  Be  still,  and  know  that  I  am  God : 

I  will  be  exalted  among  the  nations, 

I  will  be  exalted  in  the  earth." 

THE  LORD  OF  HOSTS  is  WITH  us; 
THE  GOD  OF  JACOB  is  OUR  REFUGE! 


In  the  strophic  structure  the  refrain  has  a  special  value  for 
marking  out  the  stanzas  which  have  no  other  rhythmic  distinction. 

A  splendid  example  of  such  treatment  is  given  by 

Psalms  xlii-xliii  .  °  ' 

the  poem  which  opens  the  second  book  of  Psalms. 

The  poem  expresses  the  feelings  of  one  who  is  exiled  from  the 
altar  of  his  God.  The  spirit  of  the  whole  lyric  is  summed  up  in 
its  refrain,  which  is  a  struggle  between  despair  and  hope. 

Why  art  thou  cast  down,  O  my  soul? 
And  why  art  thou  disquieted  -within  me  t 

Hope  thou  in  God  : 
For  I  shall  yet  praise  him, 
Who  is  the  health  of  my  countenance 

And  my  God! 

This  refrain  is  found  to  unify  into  a  single  poem  the  psalms  num- 
bered forty-two  and  forty-three ;  and  the  whole  falls  into  three 
strophes.  Though  the  refrain  does  not  change,  yet  its  repetition 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  61 

is  made  to  suggest  advance.  The  first  strophe  has  nothing  but 
longing  memories :  how  the  poet  was  wont  to  mingle  with  the 
throng,  or  perhaps  lead  them  in  procession  to  the  house  of  God, 
with  the  voice  of  joy  and  praise,  a  multitude  keeping  holyday. 
Its  struggle  towards  hopefulness  is  so  unsuccessful  that,  after  the 
refrain,  the  second  strophe  opens  with  the  deepest  note  of  de- 
spondency. A  single  ray  of  light,  however,  is  cast  into  the  future, 
and  there  is  just  a  mention  of  loving-kindness  by  day  and  songs 
in  the  night,  after  which  thoughts  of  mourning  and  oppression 
resume  their  sway.  But  the  third  stanza  begins  with  a  more 
resolute  appeal  to  God  as  the  judge,  or  righter  of  the  oppressed ; 
the  turn  has  been  taken,  and  we  advance  through  ideas  of  light 
and  truth  to  joy  and  praise  of  *harp,  until  the  third  repetition  of 
the  refrain  makes  us  feel  that  its  summons  to  hope  has  proved 
successful. 

But  the  maximum  of  lyric  effect  drawn  from  the  combination 
of  the  strophic  structure  and  the  refrain  is  found  in  a  portion  of 

the  hundred  and  seventh  psalm.     Here  there  is  a 
,      ,  .          .    .  .  ,  f       Psalm  cvii.  4-33 

double  refrain  :  one  puts  in  each  stanza  a  cry  for 

help,  the  other  the  outburst  of  praise  after  the  help  has  come ; 
each  refrain  has  a  sequel  verse  which  appropriately  changes  with 
the  subject  of  each  stanza. 

Strophe  i 

They  wandered  in  the  wilderness  in  a  desert  way; 
They  found  no  city  of  habitation. 
Hungry  and  thirsty, 
Their  soul  fainted  in  them. 

Then  they  cried  unto  the  LORD  in  their  trouble, 

And  he  delivered  them  out  of  their  distresses. 

He  led  them  also  by  a  straight  way, 

That  they  might  go  to  a  city  of  habitation. 

OH  THAT  MEN  WOULD  PRAISE  THE  LORD   FOR  HIS  GOODNESS, 
AND   FOR  HIS  WONDERFUL  WORKS  TO  THE  CHILDREN   OF   MEN  I 
For  he  satisfieth  the  longing  soul, 
And  the  hungry  soul  he  filleth  with  good. 


62         FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

Strophe  2 

Such  as  sat  in  darkness  and  in  the  shadow  of  death, 
Being  bound  in  affliction  and  iron; 
Because  they  rebelled  against  the  words  of  God, 
And  contemned  the  counsel  of  the  Most  High : 
Therefore  he  brought  down  their  heart  with  labour, 
They  fell  down,  and  there  was  none  to  help. 

Then  they  cried  unto  the  LORD  in  their  trouble, 

And  he  saved  them  out  of  their  distresses. 

He  brought  them  out  of  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death, 

And  brake  their  bands  in  sunder. 

OH  THAT  MEN  WOULD  PRAISE  THE  LORD   FOR  HIS  GOODNESS, 
AND   FOR  HIS  WONDERFUL  WORKS  TO  THE  CHILDREN  OF  MEN  I 
For  he  hath  broken  the  gates  of  brass, 
And  cut  the  bars  of  iron  in  sunder. 

Strophe  3 

Fools  because  of  their  transgression, 
And  because  of  their  iniquities,  are  afflicted. 
Their  soul  abhorreth  all  manner  of  meat; 
And  they  draw  near  unto  the  gates  of  death. 

Then  they  cry  unto  the  LORD  in  their  trouble, 

And  he  saveth  them  out  of  their  distresses. 

He  sendeth  his  word,  and  healeth  them, 

And  delivereth  them  from  their  destructions. 

OH  THAT  MEN  WOULD  PRAISE  THE  LORD   FOR  HIS   GOODNESS, 
AND  FOR  HIS  WONDERFUL  WORKS  TO  THE  CHILDREN  OF  MEN  I 
And  let  them  offer  the  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving, 
And  declare  his  works  with  singing. 

Strophe  4 

They  that  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships, 

That  do  business  in  great  waters, 

These  see  the  works  of  the  LORD, 

And  his  wonders  in  the  deep. 

For  he  commandeth,  and  raiseth  the  stormy  wind, 

Which  lifteth  up  the  waves  thereof: 

They  mount  up  to  the  heaven, 

They  go  down  again  to  the  depths; 

Their  soul  melteth  away  because  of  trouble : 


VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  BIBLE  63 

They  reel  to  and  fro, 

And  stagger  like  a  drunken  man; 

And  are  at  their  wits'  end. 

Then  they  cry  unto  the  LORD  in  their  trouble, 

And  he  bringeth  them  out  of  their  distresses. 

He  maketh  the  storm  a  calm, 

So  that  the  waves  thereof  are  still. 

Then  are  they  glad  because  they  be  quiet : 

So  he  bringeth  them  unto  the  haven  where  they  would  be. 
OH  THAT  MEN  WOULD  PRAISE  THE   LORD   FOR  HIS  GOODNESS, 
AND   FOR  HIS  WONDERFUL  WORKS  TO  THE  CHILDREN   OF  MEN! 
Let  them  exalt  him  also  in  the  assembly  of  the  people, 
And  praise  him  in  the  seat  of  the  elders. 

It  is  just  such  structural  variations  as  these  that  it  is  the  special 
mission  of  a  musical  rendering  to  express.1  In  the  psalm  just 
cited  the  melancholy  monotony  of  men's  voices  in 
unison  might  be  used  to  bring  out  the  various 
phases  of  distress  which  make  the  subjects  of  suc- 
cessive strophes.  Children's  voices  in  harmony  and  unaccom- 
panied would  fitly  express  the  cry  for  help  (refrain  and  sequel 
verse),  while  full  choir  and  organ  would  give  out  the  thanksgiving. 
In  the  more  extended  final  stanza  a  monotone  of  men's  voices  in 
unison  would  leave  more  scope  for  organ  accompaniment  to  bring 
out  the  changes  of  the  sea.  Then  as  before  the  whole  would 
resolve  into  the  silvery  harmony  of  children's  voices  heard  alone ; 
while  all  that  full  choir  and  instrument  could  do  would  be  needed 
for  the  final  climax. 

1  Bishop  Westcott's  Paragraph  Psalter  (Macmillan)  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of 
such  structural  chanting.  A  musical  setting  of  Psalms  Ixxviii  and  civ  in  illustration 
of  it  has  been  published  by  Dr.  Naylor,  late  Organist  of  York  Minster  (Novello). 


CHAPTER   II 

THE    LOWER    PARALLELISM    OF    RHYTHM    AND    THE    HIGHER 
PARALLELISM    OF    INTERPRETATION 

THE  preceding  chapter  has  sufficiently  exhibited  Biblical  Versi- 
fication in  its  leading  forms  and  devices  of  structure.  In  the 
Parallelism  in  present  chapter  I  consider  further  the  general 
general  spirit  of  parallelism  which  underlies  it.  I  wish  to 

show  that  the  study  of  such  parallelism  is  not  a  mere  matter  of 
technicalities,  but  that  it  connects  itself  directly  with  the  higher 
interests  of  literature. 

In  interpreting  the  meaning  of  Scripture  parallelism  plays  no 

Parallelism  a        unimportant  part.     I  will  commence  with  a  very 

factor  in  inter-      simple  example.     The  Song  of  the  Sword,1  which 

gives  expression  to  the  excitement  attending  the 

first  invention  of  deadly  weapons,  contains  the  following  couplet : 

I  have  slain  a  man  to  my  wounding, 
And  a  young  man  to  my  hurt. 

Does  this  passage  imply  the  slaying  of  one  person  or  two  persons  ? 
This  question  cannot  be  called  a  mere  matter  of  technicalities. 
Commentators  of  the  period  when  the  secret  of  parallelism  was 
lost  understood  the  words  to  mean  that  two  men  were  slain ;  and 
connecting  the  passage  with  the  succeeding  couplet — 

If  Cain  shall  be  avenged  sevenfold, 
Truly  Lamech  seventy  and  sevenfold  — 

they  found  an  interpretation  for  the  whole  by  supposing  that  when 

1  Otherwise  called  Song  of  Lamech  ( Gen.  iv.  23-24). 
64 


PARALLELISM  OF  INTERPRETATION  65 

Lamech  became  advanced  in  years  he  carried  with  him  a  youth 
to  show  him  where  to  point  his  arrows ;  that  this  youth  directing 
him  to  shoot  into  a  certain  bush  Lamech  thereby  slew  Cain,  and 
made  himself  liable  to  the  curse  invoked  on  the  slayer  of  that  out- 
cast. In  his  rage  Lamech  shot  a  second  arrow  at  his  youthful  at- 
tendant ;  and  thus  two  slayings  are  accounted  for.  But  to  an  ear 
accustomed  to  parallelism  it  is  clear  enough  that  no  such  violence 
of  interpretation  is  required.  The  second  line  of  a  couplet  need 
not  be  a  separate  statement  from  that  of  the  first  line,  but  may 
be,  in  the  spirit  of  parallelism,  a  saying  over  again  of  what  has 
been  said.  Thus  the  couplet  need  only  imply  the  death  of  a 
single  person,  or  better,  slaying  as  a  general  idea.  And  the  sec- 
ond couplet  merely  gives  expression  to  the  enlarged  possibilities 
of  destruction  that  come  with  the  invention  of  the  sword :  even 
the  vengeance  for  Cain  —  a  thing  that  had  perhaps  passed  into  a 
proverbial  expression  —  becomes  a  small  matter  in  comparison 
with  the  power  of  vengeance  the  armed  warrior  will  possess.  Thus 
the  whole  meaning  of  the  passage  has  been  changed  by  attention 
to  a  detail  of  versification. 

The  intrinsic  importance  of  this  first  example  is  not  great.     But 
no  one  will  consider  the  '  Lord's  Prayer '  unim-   The  Lora>8 
portant :    and  yet   it  would   seem   that   the   great  Prayer 
majority  of  those  who  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  public  fail  to 
bring  out  the  full  thought  that  underlies  it.     This  prayer  is  almost 
always  rendered  as  a  succession  of  isolated  clauses  which  may  be 
represented  thus : 

Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven,  Hallowed  be  thy  name.     Thy  king- 
dom come.     Thy  will  be  done  in  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven. 

But  the  true  significance  of  these  words  is  only  seen  when  they 
are  arranged  so  as  to  make  an  envelope  figure. 

Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven : 

Hallowed  be  thy  Name, 

Thy  Kingdom  come, 

Thy  Will  be  done, 
In  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven. 


66         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

In  the  former  version  the  words,  "  In  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven  "  are  at- 
tached only  to  the  petition,  "Thy  will  be  done."  But  in  the  envelope 
structure  all  the  parallel  clauses  are  to  be  connected  with  the  com- 
mon opening  and  close.    The  meaning  thus  becomes  :  "  Hallowed 
be  thy  name  in  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven,  Thy  kingdom  come  in  earth 
as  it  is  in  heaven,  Thy  will  be  done  in  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven." 
Something  more  than  literary  beauty  is  gained  by  the  change. 
The  eighth  psalm  affords  another  illustration  of  the  close  connec- 
tion between  parallelism  of  structure  and  interpretation. 
This  whole  poem  makes  a  single  envelope  figure. 

O  LORD,  our  Lord, 

How  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth  ! 

Who  hast  set  thy  glory  upon  the  heavens, 

Out  of  the  mouth  of  babes  and  sucklings  hast  thou  established  strength, 

Because  of  thine  adversaries, 

That  thou  mightest  still  the  enemy  and  the  avenger. 

When  I  consider  the  heavens,  the  work  of  thy  ringers, 
The  moon  and  the  stars  which  thou  hast  ordained ; 
What  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him  ? 
And  the  son  of  man,  that  thou  visitest  him  ? 

For  thou  hast  made  him  but  little  lower  than  God, 

And  crownest  him  with  glory  and  honour. 

Thou  madest  him  to  have  dominion  over  the  works  of  thy  hands; 

Thou  hast  put  all  things  under  his  feet  : 

All  sheep  and  oxen, 

Yea,  and  the  beasts  of  the  field  ; 

The  fowl  of  the  aV,  and  the  fish  of  the  sea, 

Whatsoever  passeth  through  the  paths  of  the  seas. 

O  LORD,  our  Lord, 

How  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth ! 

By  neglect  o*  the  true  structure,  three  lines  instead  of  two  have 
been  taken  into  the  opening  verse  : 

I.  O  LORD,  our  Lord, 

How  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth  ! 
Who  hast  set  thy  glory  upon  the  heavens. 


PARALLELISM   OF  INTERPRETATION  67 

Accordingly,  the  verse  which  follows  this,  and  presumably  opens 
the  regular  thought  of  the  poem,  is  made  to  read  : 

2.    Out   of  the  mouth  of  babes  and  sucklings  hast  thou  established 
strength,  etc. 

So  arranged  this  verse  becomes  obscure,  and  the  ingenuity  of 
commentators  has  been  much  exercised  to  determine  what  is  the 
allusion  its  words  contain.  But  the  envelope  structure  conveys  at 
once  to  the  eye  that  the  first  two  lines  must  be  isolated  as  the 
enveloping  refrain,  and  then  the  opening  verse  becomes  this  : 

Who  hast  set  thy  glory  upon  the  heavens, 

Out   of  the  mouth  of  babes  and  sucklings  hast  thou  established 
strength,  etc. 

That  the  Artificer  of  the  mighty  heavens  should  have  chosen  man 
—  a  mere  babe  and  suckling  in  comparison  —  to  be  the  repre- 
sentative of  his  might  to  the  rest  of  the  universe  :  this  is  the 
wonder  with  which  the  poem  really  opens,  and  the  thought  of 
feeble  man  as  God's  Viceroy  over  the  creation  is  precisely  the 
idea  which  is  found  to  bind  the  whole  psalm  into  a  unity. 

These  are  particular  examples  :  it  is  possible  to  generalise.     In 
Biblical  interpretation  the  question  will  repeatedly  arise,  whether 
a  particular  passage  is  to  be  understood  as  a  simple  Parallelism  a 
narrative  of  facts  or  an  idealised  description  :  in  criterion  for 
such  a  case  parallelism  of  clauses  will  undoubtedly  ldeahsation 
be  one  factor  in  the  interpretation.     I  have  already  suggested  that 
the  extreme  symmetry  of  the  clauses  which  describe  Job's  misfor- 
tunes descending  upon  him  tells  in  favour  of  the  view  that  the 
narrative  is  not  a  history  so  much  as  an  incident  worked  up  into  a 
parable.     In  a  more  important  matter  the  same  principle  has  been 

applied  to  the  opening  chapter  of  Genesis.     The 

Genesis  i 
account  of  the  Creation  which  this  passage  contains 

is  found,  upon  examination,  to  be  arranged  with  the  most  minute 
parallelism  of  matter  and  form.  Not  only  are  the  six  days  fur- 
nished with  opening  and  closing  formulae  which  correspond,  but 


68 


FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 


the  whole  divides  into  two  symmetrical  halves  of  three  days  and 
three  days,  and  each  day  of  the  first  three  is  exactly  parallel  with 
the  corresponding  day  of  the  second  half.  A  table  will  illustrate 
the  structure. 


And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Light] 
And  there  was  evening  and  there 
was  morning,  one  day. 

And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  the  Firmament 
dividing  waters  from  waters] 
And  there  was  evening  and  there 
was  morning,  a  second  day. 

f  And  God  said — 

•<  [Creation  of  Land] 

**And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Vegetation,  cli- 
max of  inanimate  nature] 
And  there  was  evening  and  there 
was  morning,  a  third  day. 


And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Lights] 
And  there  was  evening  and  there 
was  morning,  a  fourth  day. 

And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Life  in  the  Firma- 
ment and  in  the  Waters] 

And  there  was  evening  and  there 

was  morning,  a  fifth  day. 

f  And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Life  on  Land] 
^And  God  said — 

[Creation  of  Man,  climax 
of  animate  nature] 
And  there  was  evening  and  there 
was  morning,  the  sixth  day. 


When  this  structure  and  the  fulness  of  its  parallelism  is  grasped,  it 
will  appear  reasonable  that  it  should  be  urged  as  one  argument  in 
favour  of  understanding  the  chapter  to  be,  not  a  narration  of  inci- 
dents in  their  order  of  succession,  but  a  logical  classification  of  the 
elements  of  the  universe,  with  the  emphatic  assertion  of  Divine 
creation  in  reference  to  each. 

The  reader  will  understand  that  it  is  not  essential  to  my  argu- 
ment that  such  interpretations  as  I  have  been  advancing  should 

seem  to  him  correct.     Parallelism  is  only  one  factor 
Recognition  of 

Parallelism  in  amongst  many  in  exegesis.  I  am  merely  concerned 
exegesis  to  snow  t^at  those  who  address  themselves  to  deter- 

mining the  matter  and  meaning  of  Scripture  nevertheless  appeal 
to  its  form  and  structure.  Indeed,  the  reader  unaccustomed  to 
this  subject  will  be  greatly  astonished  at  the  extent  and  minuteness 


PARALLELISM   OF  INTERPRETATION  69 

to  which  symmetry  of  form  in  Scripture  is  made  to  obtain  in  the 
exegesis  of  competent  theologians ;  when,  for  example,  not  a 
paragraph  but  a  long  poem,  or  the  whole  of  an  epistolary  treatise, 
is  represented  as  being  constructed  on  a  single  intricate  system. 
Such  elaborations  of  parallelism  must  be  considered  each  on  its 
own  merits ;  but  there  is  in  them  nothing  inherently  improbable. 
When  the  genius  of  a  language  rests  the  whole  system  of  its  versi- 
fication upon  symmetry,  of  clauses,  it  becomes  a  safe  presumption 
that  parallelism  will  penetrate  very  deeply  into  its  logical  processes 
of  thought.1 

We  have  been  led  to  see  then  that  there  are  two  points  of  view 
from  which  parallelism  may  be  considered :  that  of  Rhythm  and 

that  of  Interpretation.      The   musical  element   of 

T>-I_I-     11  11  i         j  The  Lower  Paral- 

Biblical  language  rests  on  parallels  and  recurrences,  lelismof  Rhythm 

and  an  ear  for  rhythm  is  as  essential  for  the  ap-  and  the  Higher 
preciation  of  Scriptural  style  as  an  ear  for  time  is 
essential  for  the  appreciation  of  music.  But  thought 
may  be  rhythmic  as  well  as  language,  and  the  full  meaning  and 
force  of  Scripture  is  not  grasped  by  one  who  does  not  feel  how 
thoughts  can  be  emphasised  by  being  differently  re-stated,  as  in 
the  simplest  couplet ;  or  how  a  general  thought  may  reiterate  itself 
to  enclose  its  particulars,  as  in  the  envelope  figure,  or,  in  such 
cases  as  the  Lord's  Prayer,  hold  its  conclusion  in  suspense  until 
all  to  which  it  applies  has  been  set  forth;  or  again,  as  in  the 
opening  of  Genesis,  how  a  passage  can  suggest  logical  symmetries 
while  in  form  it  is  only  narrating.  Accordingly  the  structural 
analysis  of  Biblical  language  must  distinguish  a  Lower  Parallelism 
of  Rhythm  and  a  Higher  Parallelism  of  Interpretation.  The  two 
can  never  clash,  since  in  Hebrew  rhythm  largely  depends  on 
recurrence  of  clauses  corresponding  in  thought ;  but  one  or  other 
parallelism  will  preponderate  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  a 
particular  passage  or  the  purpose  of  a  citation.  Sometimes  the 
musical  form  will  be  felt  to  preponderate,  and  in  this  case  the 

1  Dr.  Forbes's  Symmetrical  Structure  of  Scripture  (Clark,  Edinburgh)  may  be 
regarded  as  a  text-book  of  the  general  subject. 


70         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

structural  arrangement  of  the  passage  will  be  such  as  will  make 
prominent  the  recurrence  of  fixed  figures.  In  other  cases  the 
arrangement  will  bring  out  how  distant  sequences  of  words  from 
all  over  a  lengthy  passage  co-ordinate  together,  and  this  effect  will 
throw  into  the  background  the  parallelisms  of  couplets  and  trip- 
lets, which  nevertheless  are  to  be  found  when  looked  for.1 

The  matter  is  best  treated  by  illustrations ;  and  I  proceed  to 
give  two  arrangements  of  the  same  passage,  based  respectively  on 
the  Lower  and  the  Higher  Parallelism. 

Job  x.  3-13  ar-         Is  it  good  unto  thee  that  thou  shouldest  oppress, 
ranged  for  Lower    That  thou  shouldest  despise  the  work  of  thine  hands, 
Parallelism  And  shine  upon  the  counsel  of  the  wicked? 

Hast  thou  eyes  of  flesh, 
Or  seest  thou  as  man  seeth? 

Are  thy  days  as  the  days  of  man, 
Or  thy  years  as  man's  days, 

That  thou  inquires!  after  mine  iniquity, 
And  searchest  after  my  sin, 

Although  thou  knowest  that  I  am  not  wicked; 

And  there  is  none  that  can  deliver  out  of  thine  hand? 

Thine  hands  have  framed  me  and  fashioned  me 
Together  round  about;   yet  thou  dost  destroy  me. 

Remember,  I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  fashioned  me  as 

clay; 
And  wilt  thou  bring  me  into  dust  again? 

Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  as  milk, 
And  curdled  me  like  cheese? 

Thou  hast  clothed  me  with  skin  and  flesh, 
And  knit  me  together  with  bones  and  sinews. 

1  Appendix  III  formulates  a  Metrical  System  in  which  the  two  kinds  of  parallel- 
ism are  blended. 


PARALLELISM  OF  INTERPRETATION  71 

Thou  hast  granted  me  life  and  favour, 
And  thy  visitation  hath  preserved  my  spirit. 

Yet  these  things  thou  didst  hide  in  thine  heart; 
I  know  that  this  is  with  thee. 

In  the  above  citation  I  have  followed  the  Revised  Version  of 
the  Bible  in  conveying  nothing  to  the  eye  beyond  the  elementary 
rhythm  of  couplets  and  triplets.  Such  an  arrangement  involves 
the  minimum  of  interpretation,  and  therefore  the  minimum  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  Where  the  higher  symmetry  is  expressed 
individual  interpretations  will  of  course  differ.  In  my  second 
arrangement  of  the  passage  figures  of  mere  rhythm  are  suppressed 
in  order  that  parallelisms  of  thought  may  stand  out. 

Is  it  good  unto  thee  that  thou  shouldest  oppress,  Arranged  for 

That  thou  shouldest  despise  the  work  of  thine  hands,        Higher 

And  shine  upon  the  counsel  of  the  wicked?  Parallelism 

Hast  thou  eyes  of  flesh, 

Or  seest  thou  as  man  seeth? 

Are  thy  days  as  the  days  of  man, 

Or  thy  years  as  man's  days, 

That  thou  inquirest  after  mine  iniquity, 

And  searchest  after  my  sin, 

Although  thou  knowest  that  I  am  not  wicked; 

And  there  is  none  that  can  deliver  out  of  thine  hand? 
Thine  hands  have  framed  me, 
And  fashioned  me  together  round  about; 

Yet  thou  dost  destroy  me. 
Remember,  I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  fashioned  me  as  clay; 

And  wilt  thou  bring  me  into  dust  again? 
Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  as  milk, 
And  curdled  me  like  cheese  ? 
Thou  hast  clothed  me  with  skin  and  flesh, 
And  knit  me  together  with  bones  and  sinews; 
Thou  hast  granted  me  life  and  favour, 
And  thy  visitation  hath  preserved  my  spirit : 

Yet  these  things  thou  didst  hide  in  thine  heart; 

I  know  that  this  is  with  thee. 


72         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

Two  distinct  trains  of  thought  are  interwoven  in  this  passage :  in 
one  Job  makes  appeal  to  God  as  being  God's  own  handiwork;  in 
the  other  he  protests  against  the  righteous  Lord  following  the 
oppressive  ways  of  unjust  judges.  In  this  second  arrangement 
the  two  elements  of  the  thought  are  separated :  lines  belonging 
to  the  first  are  indented  to  the  left,  lines  belonging  to  the  second 
are  indented  to  the  right.  Thus  the  whole  play  of  thought  in  the 
passage  is  reflected  to  the  eye,  or,  in  other  words,  the  structural 
arrangement  has  brought  out  the  Parallelism  of  Interpretation.1 

One  more  observation  must  be  made  on  Biblical  parallelism 
considered  as  an  element  in  literary  style.  It  is  that  such  sym- 
Paraueiism  im-  metry  of  clauses  is  closely  bound  up  with  a  liter- 
plies  its  opposite  ary  effect  of  an  opposite  kind  —  that  of  surprise, 
effect  of  surprise  Jt  ^  ^  whgn  thfi  ear  ^  bemg  jed  by  ^  general 

form  of  a  passage  to  expect  what  is  coming  that  the  disappoint- 
ment of  this  expectation,  and  the  substitution  of  something  new, 
strikes  with  most  telling  force.  Here,  again,  illustrations  will 
make  the  best  exposition. 

There  is  no  passage  in  the  Bible  in  which  parallelism  is  carried 
further  than  in  the  peroration  (if  the  word  may  be  allowed)  of 

the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  with  its  comparison  of 
Matthew  vii. 
a4-27  the  two   kinds  of  hearers  to  the  builders  on  the 

rock  and  on  the  sand.  The  passage  is  antistrophic, 
and  for  every  clause  in  the  one  picture  there  is  a  corresponding 
clause  in  the  other.  Yet  here  the  effect  of  surprise  is  produced 
by  a  subtle  and  delicate  variation  which  has  been  recovered  for 
us  by  the  Revised  Version.  The  word  which  describes  the  action 
of  the  wind  differs  in  the  two  strophes ;  for  the  blasts  labouring 
in  vain  to  destroy  the  one  house  a  word  is  used  which  is  trans- 
lated by  the  English  '  beat ' ;  for  the  wind  in  the  other  case  the 
Greek  word  is  changed  to  something  which  the  Revisers  render 
'  smote '  —  the  very  sound  of  which,  as  well  as  the  sense,  pictures 
a  single  blow  sufficing  to  bring  the  structure  down. 

1  Throughout  the  volumes  of  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible  [Macmillan]  the  two 
kinds  of  parallelism  are  assumed. 


PARALLELISM  OF  INTERPRETATION  73 

Strophe 

Every  one  therefore  which  heareth  these  words  of  mine, 

and  doeth  them, 

shall  be  likened  unto  a  Wise  Man, 
which  built  his  house  upon  the  Rock : 

And  the  rain  descended, 

and  the  floods  came, 

and  the  winds  blew 

and  beat  upon  that  house; 
and  it  fell  not : 
for  it  was  founded  upon  the  Rock. 

Antistrophe 

And  every  one  that  heareth  these  words  of  mine, 

and  doeth  them  not, 
shall  be  likened  unto  a  Foolish  Man, 
which  built  his  house  upon  the  Sand : 

And  the  rain  descended, 

and  the  floods  came, 

and  the  winds  blew, 

and  SMOTE  upon  that  house; 
and  it  fell : 
and  great  was  the  fall  thereof! 

In  this  last  example,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  preceding,  the 
reader  may  have  noted  that  parallelism  of  structure  has  applica- 
tion, not  only  to  verse,  but  also  to  such  literature  as  is  ordinarily 
considered  prose.  This  rapprochement  of  verse  and  prose  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  features  of  Biblical  literature  :  its  full  con- 
sideration is  reserved  for  a  later  chapter. 


CHAPTER   III 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE   HIGHER    LITERARY  FORMS   IN 
UNIVERSAL    LITERATURE 

THE  object  of  this  First  Book  is  to  lay  down  foundation  prin- 
ciples of  literary  science,  so  far  as  they  are  involved  in  the  present 

survey  of  Scripture.  This  survey  is  morphological 
General  Plan  of  ...  .  , .  .... 

First  Book  m  1^s  character  :  its  immediate  concern  is  with  the 

form,  not  the  matter,  of  Biblical  literature.  Here, 
however,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  anticipate  an  objection.  Many 
readers  of  these  pages  may  be  inclined  to  say,  Let  professed 
literary  students  look  to  technicalities  of  form  :  we  plain  people 
care  only  about  the  matter  and  spirit  of  Scripture.  There  could 
not  be  a  greater  misapprehension :  on  the  contrary,  we  can  never 
be  clear  as  to  the  contents  of  a  piece  of  literature  unless  we  have 

,.       settled  the  external  form.     To  take  a  very  simple 
Close  connection  J 

of  Form  and  illustration.  A  man  sits  down  to  read  a  chapter  in 
the  Bible,  endeavouring,  in  a  devotional  spirit,  to 
bring  his  soul  into  harmony  with  what  he  regards  as  God's  mes- 
sage to  him.  Unfortunately,  he  has  omitted  to  note  that  the 
chapter  he  is  reading  is  the  continuation  of  another  chapter  which 
opened  with  the  words,  "Then  answered  Bildad  the  Shuhite  "  : 
now,  in  a  later  chapter  God  is  represented  as  saying  that  Bildad 
and  the  other  friends  of  Job  have  not  said  of  him  the  thing  that 
is  right.  Thus  the  simple  reader  has  been  trying  to  accept  as 
God's  message  the  words  of  a  speaker  whom  God  himself  repu- 
diates. How  has  the  mistake  arisen?  Merely  through  ignor- 
ing a  point  of  literary  form  —  the  dramatic  character  of  the  Book 
of  Job.  A  sentence  culled  from  an  essay  may  safely  be  taken  to 

74 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  75 

represent  the  writer's  views  :  a  sentence  taken  from  a  drama  may 
well  mean  the  opposite  of  the  dramatist's  real  opinion. 

Conscience  is  but  a  word  that  cowards  use, 
Devised  at  first  to  keep  the  strong  in  awe. 

These  words  are  found  in  Shakespeare  :  no  one  would  dream  of 
supposing  they  represented  Shakespeare's  own  view  of  conscience, 
for  he  has  put  the  lines  into  the  mouth  of  the  greatest  villain  in 
all  literature.  If  the  reply  be  made  that  so  broad  a  distinction  as 
that  between  drama  and  other  literature  would  not  often  be  over- 
looked, I  would  remind  the  reader  of  the  instances  enumerated 
in  the  preceding  chapter  of  interpretations  depending  upon  vari- 
ations of  parallel  structure.  A  later  chapter  will  show  how  upon 
a  fine  technical  distinction  —  between  a  drama  and  a  lyric  idyl  — 
rests  a  difference  of  interpretation  for  Solomon's  Song  which  offers 
as  alternatives  two  stories  underlying  the  poem,  totally  different 
in  facts  and  in  moral  complexion.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say 
that  form  is  the  foremost  factor  in  the  interpretation  of  matter. 

The  preceding  chapters  have  dealt  with  the  simplest  and  most 
elementary  of  all  literary  forms,  the  distinction  of  prose  and  verse. 
I  now  pass  to  the  Higher  Forms  :  such  distinctions 
as  are  expressed  by  the  terms  Epic,  Lyric,  Rhetoric,  Literajf  Forms 
and  the  like.    The  present  chapter  will  endeavour 
briefly  to  arrive  at  the  fundamental  conceptions  underlying  these 
terms  in  universal  literature      The  next  chapter  will  deal  with  the 
application  of  the  terms  to  the  literature  of  the  Bible. 

Let  the  reader  firmly  fix  four  ideas  in  his  mind,  as  what  may 
be  called  the  four  Cardinal  Points  of  Literature.  Tne  fOUr  Cardinal 
Two  of  these  are  given  by  the  antithesis  Descrip-   Points  of  Litera- 
tion  and  Presentation.     When  an  incident  is  de-  * 
scribed  to  us,  the  incident  itself  belongs  to  the  past,  the  words 

describing  it  are  throughout  the  words  of  the  author. 

,         ,  .         . .  Description  and 

When  it  is  presented,  the  author  himself  nowhere   presentation 

appears,  but  he  leaves  us  to  hear  the  words  of 

those  personages  who  actually  took  part  in  the  incident,  perhaps 

to  see  their  doings ;  we  become  spectators,  and  the  circumstances 


76         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

make  themselves  present  before  us.  Homer  and  Milton  give  us 
literature  of  description ;  for  presentation  the  most  complete  illus- 
tration is  Shakespeare,  in  whose  pages  all  varieties  of  mankind  are 
speaking  and  moving,  but  the  poet  himself  is  never  heard. 

The  other  two  ideas  are  conveyed  by  the  words  Poetry  and 
Prose.     It  is  impossible  to  use  other  terms ;  and  yet  about  these 

there  is  an  unfortunate  ambiguity,  owing  to  the  exi- 
Poetry  and  Prose  & 

gences  of  language  which  have  imposed  a  double 

duty  on  the  word  '  prose ' :  it  is  antithetic  to  '  poetry '  and  it  is 
also  antithetic  to  'verse.'  No  doubt  there  is  a  good  deal  in 
common  between  these  two  usages  of  the  word  :  Poetry  is  mostly 
conveyed  in  verse,  and  Prose  literature  in  the  style  called  prose. 
But  the  terms  must  be  used  with  a  cautious  recollection  that 
Poetry  is  sometimes  cast  in  the  form  of  prose  —  notably,  we  shall 
see,  in  the  Bible ;  while  in  the  earlier  stages  of  literary  history 
verse  has  often  been  utilised  for  works  of  science  and  philosophy 
which  would  later  have  been  thrown  into  a  prose  form.  The  con- 
ception we  are  at  present  seeking  will  be  best  grasped  if  we 
translate  the  Greek  word  '  poetry '  into  its  Latin  equivalent,  '  cre- 
ative literature  ' ;  it  assists  also  to  remember  the  old  English  usage 
by  which  a  poet  was  called  a  '  maker.'  The  idea  underlying  these 
words  is  that  the  poet  makes  something,  creates,  adds  to  the  sum 
of  existences ;  whereas  the  antithetic  literature  of  Prose  has  only 
to  discuss  what  already  exists.  When  Homer  has  sung  and  Eu- 
ripides exhibited  plays  the  world  is  richer  by  an  Achilles  and  an 
Alcestis.  It  makes  no  difference  whether,  as  an  historic  fact,  the 
Greek  warrior  and  the  Queen  of  Pherae  ever  existed,  or  whether 
they  are  pure  figments  of  the  imagination,  or  whether  they  existed 
but  behaved  quite  differently  from  what  the  poem  and  the  play 
suggest :  to  our  poetic  sense  the  Homeric  Achilles  and  the  Euripi- 
dean  Alcestis  are  as  real  as  the  Caesar  of  history.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  literature  of  Prose  moves  only  in  the  region  limited 
by  facts;  history  and  philosophy  have  to  deal  only  with  what 
actually  has  existence,  accurately  describing  things,  or  bringing  out 
the  relations  between  one  thing  and  another. 


EPIC 

Description 
(Verse  prepon- 
derates) 


LYRIC 

Reflection 

(Music  prepon- 

derates) 


DRAMA 
Presentation 
(Action  prepon- 
derates) 


CD 


HISTORY 

Description  (of 

Nature  &  Events) 


RHETORIC 
Presentation 


PHILOSOPHY 
Reflection 


JO 

9S04J 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY  FORMS  79 

These  four  ideas,  Description  and  Presentation,  Poetry  and 
Prose,  I  have  called  the  four  Cardinal  Points  of  Literature  :  they 
are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  divisions  or  classes  into  Primitive  liter. 
which  literary  works  may  be  divided,  but  as  so  aryform:  the 
many  different  directions  in  which  literary  activity  Ballad  Dance 
may  move.  But  to  understand  this  movement  a  fifth  conception 
must  be  added  as  a  starting-point  for  such  activity.  The  starting- 
point  of  literature  is  found  in  what  is  technically  called  the  Ballad 
Dance.  The  study  of  Comparative  Literature  reveals  that  wher- 
ever literature  arises  spontaneously  its  earliest  form  is  a  combina- 
tion of  verse,  music,  and  imitative  gesture.  Whether  it  be  a  story, 
or  an  uplifting  of  the  heart  in  worship,  or  a  burst  of  popular  frolic, 
the  expression  of  these  will  be  in  rhythmic  words,  which  are 
chanted  to  a  tune  with  or  without  instrumental  accompaniment, 
and  further  emphasised  by  expressive  gestures  of  the  whole  body 
such  as  have  come  to  be  denominated  '  dancing.'  Hebrew  litera- 
ture was  no  exception.  Of  course,  the  actual  contents  of  our 
Bibles  are  far  removed  from  such  primitive  productions.  But 
some  portions  of  Sacred  Scripture  are  early  enough  not  to  have 
lost  the  triple  form  with  which  poetry  started.  Thus 

i       •     r  J^t-^^u        o  r   TV  T  ExOdUS  XV.  3O 

we  are  expressly  informed  that  the  Song  of  Moses 
and  Miriam  was  accompanied  with  timbrel  music  and  dances ; 
even  when  the  bringing  of  the  Ark  to  Jerusalem  n<  Sam_  vi-  5> 
called  forth  such  lofty  strains  of  poetry  we  have  a  14-i6 
full  description  of  the  orchestra  with  which  that  poetry  was  accom- 
panied, and  we  know  how  David  himself  "danced  with  all  his 
might  "  in  its  performance. 

If  then  the  reader  keeps  in  his  mind  this  starting-point  of  liter- 
ature in  the  Ballad  Dance,  and  also  the  four  directions  in  which 
its  impulses  are  likely  to  carry  it,  he  will  be  able  F 
to  lay  down  as  in  a  chart  the  great  forms  which  Forms  for  Liter- 
literature  assumes  as  it  develops.     On  the  side  of  ature  in  general 
Poetry  three  great  types  of  literature  arise,  which  on  examination 
are  found  to  reflect  the  three  elements  —  verse,  music,  dancing  — 
combined  by  primitive  poetry  in  one.     Epic  is  a  branch  thrown 


80         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

off  on  the  side  of  Description,  for  it  consists  in  the  narration  of  a 

poetic  story  ;  the  name  '  Epic,'  which  literally  means 

'  speech,'  is   seen  by  comparison  with  the  other 

names  to  imply  that  in  this  branch  verse  is  the  only  one  of  the 

three  original  elements  which  is  essential,  music  and  dancing  being 

for  epic  poetry  mere  accessories  that  soon  disap- 

Drama 
peared.     Over  against  this  Epic  a  second  branch 

of  creative  literature  is  found  pointing  in  the  direction  of  Presenta- 
tion ;  and  its  name,  Drama,  implies  that  here  the  imitative  gesture 
of  the  ballad  dance  has  predominated  over  everything  else,  for 
'  Drama  '  is  '  acted  poetry.'  The  remaining  constituent  of  primi- 
tive literature,  music,  is  suggested  by  the  name  of 
the  third  great  division  of  poetry  —  Lyric,  and  all 
the  devices  of  musical  art  find  their  analogies  in  the  movement 
of  lyric  poetry.  As  Epic  was  concerned  with  Description,  and 
Drama  with  Presentation,  so  Lyric  has  a  special  function  which 
at  the  same  time  mediates  between  the  other  two.  It  may  be 
described  by  the  term  Reflection  or  Meditation ;  by  this  medi- 
tative function  lyric  poetry  can  —  as  its  position  on  our  chart 
would  suggest  —  pass  at  any  moment  into  epic  or  dramatic  with- 
out losing  its  own  distinctive  character.  To  illustrate  :  let  us  take 
up  (say)  the  ninth  psalm  at  the  eleventh  verse. 

Sing  praises  to  the  LORD,  which  dwelleth  in  Zion : 

Declare  among  the  people  his  doings. 
For  he  that  maketh  inquisition  for  blood  remembereth  them : 

He  forgetteth  not  the  cry  of  the  poor. 

We  have  struck  this  lyric  at  a  point  where  the  poet  is  reflecting  ;  but 
in  the  next  verse  the  meditation  has  become  dramatic,  for  we  are 
allowed  to  hear  the  very  cries  of  the  poor  who  have  been  spoken  of. 

"  Have  mercy  upon  me,  O  LORD; 

Behold  my  affliction  which  I  suffer  of  them  that  hate  me, 
Thou  that  liftest  me  up  from  the  gates  of  death; 
That  I  may  shew  forth  all  thy  praise : 
In  the  gates  of  the  daughter  of  Zion, 
I  will  rejoice  in  thy  salvation." 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  LITERARY  FORMS  8\ 

As  the  lyric  form  has  thus  changed  quite  naturally  into  a  momen- 
tary drama,  so  in  the  verse  that  follows  it  is  found  to  have  passed 
into  epic  description. 

The  nations  are  sunk  down  in  the  pit  that  they  made: 
In  the  net  which  they  hid  is  their  own  foot  taken. 

Biblical  lyrics  illustrate  more  fully  than  any  others  this  essentially 
central  character  of  lyric  poetry  and  its  power  of  absorbing  the 
other  forms. 

Analogous  to  the  three  great  types  of  Poetry  we  have  three 

main  divisions  of  literature  on  its  side  of  Prose.     Epic  has  its 

counterpart  in  History.     The  word  history  has  for 

History  .  ,     ,       -    ,  ,       ,          ..... 

its  range  the  whole  field  of  positive  description  : 
'  Natural  History '  is  the  description  of  external  nature,  and  '  His- 
tory '  without  any  qualifying  adjective  is  the  description  of  events. 
On  the  other  side  the  prose  analogue  of  Drama  is 
Rhetoric  ;  for  the  orator  differs  from  others  who 
use  prose  in  the  prominence  he  gives  to  presentation.  To  the 
famous  orator  Demosthenes  is  attributed  the  saying  that  the  first 
element  of  oratory  is  action,  and  the  second  element  action,  and 
the  third  action  :  the  meaning  of  this  is  that  an  orator  must  above 
all  things  be  an  actor;  he  must  be  able  to  identify  himself  with  his 
cause  as  an  actor  presents  a  part.  Lastly,  as  Lyric  was  reflective 

poetry,  the  corresponding  form  of  prose  literature  is 
Philosophy  v  J>  r .  . 

Philosophy,  which  is  no  more  than  organised  reflec- 
tion. And  as  Lyric  was  found  to  occupy  a  central  position  on  the 
side  of  poetry,  so  that  it  could  dip  at  intervals  into  Epic  and  Drama, 
an  analogous  power  attaches  to  Philosophy,  which  can  extend  in 
the  direction  of  Description  when  it  takes  the  form  of  scientific 
observation,  and  on  the  other  side  can  advance  almost  to  the 
bounds  of  Rhetoric  in  the  form  of  exposition. 

We  have  thus,  starting  from  first  principles,  arrived  at  a  concep- 
tion of  the  six  main  distinctions  of  literary  form.  But  these  six 
forms  must  be  understood  as  merely  general  notions,  drawn  from 
a  comparative  survey  of  literature  as  a  whole.  They  are  the 


82         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

elements  of  literature  :  and  just  as  the  'elements'  into  which  the 
chemist  analyses  matter  are  seldom  found  in  nature  separate  and 
Lit  .  distinct,  but  almost  always  in  combination,  so  in  the 

seldom  confined  actual  literatures  of  the  world  it  will  be  an  excep- 
to  a  single  form  tionai  case  jf  any  particular  work  is  found  to  exem- 
plify one  of  the  six  forms  we  have  been  discussing,  without  any 
admixture  of  the  rest.  What  we  call  Greek  Tragedy  is  not  drama, 
but  a  union  of  drama  and  lyric ;  the  modern  English  novel  is  a 
blend  of  romance  and  philosophy.  For  ordinary  purposes  of 
classification  a  nomenclature  based  on  predominant  form  is  suffi- 
cient. But  when  we  pass  from  classification  to  analysis  we  must 
always  be  prepared  for  form  combinations.  And  it  will  appear 
later  that  in  Biblical  literature  one  leading  form  is  made  by  the 
fusion  of  all  the  rest. 


CHAPTER   IV 

APPLICATION    OF    LITERARY    CLASSIFICATION    TO    BIBLICAL 
LITERATURE 

IN  approaching  that  which  is  the  main  purpose  of  the  present 
work,  the  recognition  in  Biblical  literature  of  such  forms  as  Epic, 
Lyric,  Drama,  and  the  like,  we  are  met  at  the  threshold  by  an 
obstacle  of  a  very  special  kind  :  an  obstacle  that  affects  only  the 
sacred  Scriptures,  and  these  not  through  anything  in  themselves, 
but  as  a  result  of  accidental  circumstances  in  the  tradition  by 
which  they  have  come  down  to  us.  I  would  describe  this  obstacle 
by  saying  that,  in  Biblical  literature,  the  Lower  ThelowerUnIty 
Unities  have  obscured  the  Higher  Unity.  By  and  the  Higher 
Lower  Unity  I  mean  the  bond  uniting  clauses  into  Unity 
a  verse  and  verses  into  a  stanza.  The  Higher  Unity  is  the  Unity 
of  Poem :  the  bond  which  unites  successive  verses  and  stanzas 
into  a  poem  complete  in  itself.1 

This    conflict  of   lower    and    higher    unity  arises    from    the 
arrangement  of  our  printed  bibles  and  of  the  manuscripts  on 

which  they  are  founded,  and  still  more  from  the 

The  Higher 
habits  of  reading  which  these  by  long  tradition  unity  obscured 

have  fostered.    In  dealing  with  any  other  literature  by  reading  the 
.  ,  ,  ..    Bible  in  verses 

the  student  would  naturally,  and  as  a  matter  of 

course,  look  for  the  higher  unity  in  what  he  reads.  He  would  not 
study  Virgil  merely  to  get  quotable  hexameters,  nor  Shakespeare 
to  find  pithy  sentences :  he  would  wish  to  comprehend  the  drift 
of  a  scene,  or  the  plot  of  a  whole  play ;  he  would  read  a  whole 

1  For  convenience  of  illustration  I  speak  throughout  the  chapter  of  poems :  but 
the  argument  applies,  mutatis  mutandis,  to  prose  compositions. 

83 


84         FIRST  PRINCIPLES  IN  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

eclogue  at  once,  or  even  sustain  his  attention  through  the  twelve 
books  of  the  ^Eneid.  But  the  vast  majority  of  those  who  read  the 
Bible  have  never  shaken  off  the  mediaeval  tendency  to  look  upon 
it  as  a  collection  of  isolated  sentences,  isolated  texts,  isolated 
verses.  Their  intention  is  nothing  but  reverent ;  but  the  effect 
of  their  imperfect  reading  is  to  degrade  a  sacred  literature  into  a 
pious  scrap-book. 

I  have  called  this  tendency  mediaeval :  it  is  a  relic  of  the 
Middle  Ages  under  the  influence  of  which  arose  our  earliest  trans- 
This  tendency  a  ^ati°ns  °f  tne  Bible  into  modern  tongues.  The 
relic  of  mediaeval  thought  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  distinguished  by  dis- 
connectedness. The  Schoolmen  were  not  remark- 
able for  successful  investigation  or  wide  reflectiveness,  but  they 
surpassed  all  men  in  subtlety  of  discussion ;  indeed,  it  would 
almost  seem  that  with  them  the  process  of  discussing  was  more 
important  than  the  conclusion  attained.  Accordingly  their  age 
gave  special  prominence  to  the  isolated  proposition.  Its  thinkers 
were  not  confined  to  books  as  a  medium  for  expressing  thought; 
it  was  open  to  them  to  issue,  like  Luther,  a  series  of  propositions, 
and,  setting  these  up  on  some  church  door,  offer  discussion  with 
all  comers.  To  formulate  truth  into  these  brief  independent  sen- 
tences, adapted  for  attack  and  defence,  made  the  characteristic 
literary  activity  of  the  period.  In  modern  thought  detail  truths 
are  so  many  bricks  to  be  built  into  an  edifice,  each  valued  accord- 
ing as  it  contributes  to  the  common  stability;  the  independent 
propositions  of  the  mediaeval  thinker  were  rather  footballs  to  be 
driven  to  and  fro  in  an  exercise  of  dialectic  strength.  Translations 
of  the  Bible  made  amid  such  surroundings  took  shape  from  the 
minds  of  the  translators.  Hebrew  and  Greek  literature  —  poem, 
dialogue,  discourse  —  all  assumed  a  monotonous  uniformity  of 
numbered  sentences,  each  to  be  treated  as  a  good  saying  in  itself, 
rather  than  a  component  part  of  a  literary  whole. 

The  influence  of  these  earliest  translations  is  still  felt.  There 
are  three  versions  of  the  Bible  in  familiar  use  amongst  us :  one 
is  the  recent  'Revised  Version';  a  second  is  the  'Authorised 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  85 

Version,'  executed  under  King  James  I ;  while  for  a  third  the 
earlier  translation  of  Coverdale  is  represented  in  the  Psalter  of 
the  Prayer  Book.  These  three  versions  stand  at  _.  ular 

three   different   points   of  the   line   separating   us  versions  of  the 
from  the  Middle  Ages  :  Coverdale's  translation  was  Blble 
executed  wholly  amid  mediaeval  surroundings ; 1  the  Authorised 
Version  belongs  to  the  borderland  between  mediaeval  and  modern, 
while  the  Revised  Version  is  entirely  modern.     When  these  three 
translations  are  compared  what  is  the  result?     If  c 

Similar  in  what 

the  comparison  be  made  in  respect  of  phraseology  concerns  the 
and  single  verses  there  will   be   little   to   choose  LowerUnity 
between  the  three  :    the  earliest  will  strike  our  sense  of  beauty 
quite  as  much  as  the  latest.     But  when  attention  is  given  to  the 
connection  between  verse  and  verse,  to  the  drift  of  an  argument 

and  the  general  unity  of  a  whole  poem,  only  the 

T>      •     j  TT  -11   u     r        j       i-   ui        .L  j        The 'Revised 

Revised  Version  will  be  found  reliable  ;  the  reader  yersi0n  >  stands 

of  the  Authorised  Version,  when  he  wishes  to  catch  alone  as  regards 
the  teaching  of  a  whole  epistle,  or  the  sequence  of 
thought  in  a  minor  prophet,  must  go  to  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
to  find  out  what  his  English  version  means. 

It  is  most  important  for  the  English  student  of  the  Bible  to 
remember  that  these  versions  are  different  in  kind,  and  must 
therefore  not  be  discussed  as  if  they  represented  different  degrees 
of  success  in  attaining  a  common  object.  It  will  be  well  to 
emphasise  this  matter  by  examples. 

Let  our  first  example  be  taken  from  the  translation  of  Cover- 
dale.     The  eighteenth  psalm  will  be  specially  suit- 
able for  our  purpose,  because  in  the  case  of  this  Praver  Book  Y"' 

sion  compared 

poem  the  Authorised  and   Revised  versions   sub-   with  the  other 

stantially   agree ;    moreover   the   impression    they  two 

give   of  the   psalm  — that   of  a   thanksgiving   for 

recent  deliverance  —  is  one  not  open  to  dispute,  inasmuch  as  the 

1  Coverdale's  version  is  in  actual  date  (1535)  earlier  than  A.  V.  by  three-quarters 
of  a  century;  in  spirit  it  is  earlier  still,  being  avowe<l!y  not  original,  but  founded 
upon  previous  '  interpretations.1  See  Dr.  W.  F.  Moulton's  History  of  the  English. 
Bible  (Cassell),  chapters  vii  and  viii. 


86         FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

poem  is  cited  at  full  length  in  the  book  of  Samuel,  and  is  there 
expressly  connected  with  the  escape  of  David  from  the  persecution 
of  Saul.  As  we  read  in  the  Authorised  or  Revised  versions,  every 
line  of  the  poem  carries  out  this  idea.  At  the  commencement 
epithets  of  adoration  succeed  one  another  with  an  exuberance  of 
diction  that  is  like  a  flourish  of  trumpets  opening  some  set  piece 
of  music.  With  the  fourth  verse  the  psalm  settles  down  to  its 
regular  movement,  and  -in  subdued  tones  describes  the  perilous 
extremity  out  of  which  the  singer  has  found  deliverance. 

The  sorrows  of  death  compassed  me,  and  the  floods  of  ungodly  men 
made  me  afraid. 

The  sorrows  of  hell  compassed  me  about;  the  snares  of  death  pre- 
vented me. 

In  my  distress  I  called  upon  the  LORD,  and  cried  unto  my  God :  he 
heard  my  voice  out  of  his  temple,  and  my  cry  came  before  him, 
even  into  his  ears. 

Then  a  burst  of  imagery  rushes  upon  us,  sustained  through  nine 
verses,  presenting  all  nature  agitated  to  its  centre  as  the  Almighty 
descends  to  the  help  of  the  sufferer  who  has  called  upon  him. 
A  strain  of  tenderness  comes  in  with  the  deliverance  itself. 

He  sent  from  above,  he  took  me,  he  drew  me  out  of  many  waters. 
He  delivered  me  from  my  strong  enemy,  and  from  them  which  hated 

me :  for  they  were  too  strong  for  me. 
They  prevented  me  in  the  day  of  my  calamity :  but  the  LORD  was  my 

stay. 
He  brought  me  forth  also  into  a  large  place;   he  delivered  me,  because 

he  delighted  in  me. 

With  the  last  clause  the  conception  has  widened.  The  poet  con- 
siders that  with  his  personal  deliverance  the  cause  of  righteous- 
ness has  triumphed,  and  so  he  is  led  to  the  generalisation  : 

With  the  merciful  thou  wilt  shew  thyself  merciful;    with  an  upright 

man  thou  wilt  shew  thyself  upright. 
With  the  pure  thou  wilt  shew  thyself  pure :  and  with  the  froward  thou 

wilt  shew  thyself  froward. 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  87 

The  latter  half  of  the  psalm  no  less  clearly  carries  on  the  concep- 
tion of  the  earlier  half;  review  of  past  deliverances  carries  with 
it  confidence  for  the  future,  when  whole  nations  will  run  in  sub- 
mission to  the  conqueror  marked  out  by  Divine  favour.  Towards 
the  close  the  rapture  of  the  opening  verses  reappears  : 

The  LORD  liveth :  and  blessed  be  my  rock;  and  let  the  God  of  my  sal- 
vation be  exalted. 

Then  in  the  very  last  line,  like  the  signature  to  a  document,  comes 
the  name  of  '  David,'  at  once  the  singer  and  the  hero  of  the  song. 
Let  the  reader  now  study  this  psalm  in  the  Psalter  of  the 
Prayer  Book.  Let  him  remember  what  is  the  exact  point  of  the 
present  argument.  If  he  takes  any  particular  verse,  he  will  find 
it  just  as  striking  in  the  translation  of  Coverdale  as  in  the  later 
versions ;  it  will  be  when  he  proceeds  to  note  the  linking  of  verse 
to  verse  that  the  difference  will  appear.  At  the  third  verse  (in 
the  numbering  of  the  Prayer  Book)  the  psalm  appears,  as  in 
the  other  version,  to  start  upon  the  description  of  a  perilous 
extremity. 

The  sorrows  of  death  compassed  me :  and  the  overflowings  of  ungod- 
liness made  me  afraid. 
The  pains  of  hell  came  about  me :  the  snares  of  death  overtook  me. 

But  when  we  pass  to  the  next  verse,  instead  of  a  continuation  of 
the  description,  we  find  a  general  statement. 

In  my  trouble  I  will  call  upon  the  Lord  :    and  complain  unto  my  God. 

Of  course,  if  a  reader"  has  come  to  his  Bible  simply  as  a  store- 
house of  good  words,  he  may  find  as  great  a  spiritual  stimulus  in 
the  declaration,  "  I  will  call  upon  the  Lord,"  as  in  the  statement, 
"  I  did  call  upon  the  Lord."  But  to  the  reader  of  a  sacred  liter- 
ature this  substitution  in  the  Prayer  Book  Version  of  future  tense 
for  past  has  destroyed  the  connection  of  the  verses,  and  the 
unity  is  gone.  Again,  at  the  seventh  verse  Coverdale's  translation 
returns  to  the  tense  of  description;  but  at  verse  16 — just  where 


88         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

in  the  other  case  we  found  the  actual  deliverance  come  in  —  we 
are  thrown  back  upon  general  expressions  : 

He  shall  send  down  from  on  high  to  fetch  me,  etc. 

In  verse  18  we  read,  " They prevented me,"  but  in  verse  20,  "The 
Lord  shall  reward  me "  :  and  so  throughout  the  poem  past, 
present,  future  tenses  are  indiscriminately  mingled.  What  does 
this  mean  ?  That  the  translator  was  a  bungler  ?  Certainly  not : 
every  verse,  with  its  felicity  of  diction  and  beauty  of  rhythm, 
belies  such  a  suggestion.  The  meaning  is  that  Coverdale  formed 
a  different  conception  of  the  literature  he  was  translating  from 
that  which  both  ourselves  and  the  later  versions  assume.  It  did 
not  belong  to  Coverdale's  age  to  look  upon  a  psalm  as  a  poem 
with  a  unity  running  through  it ;  he  understood  it  simply  as  a  col- 
lection of  pious  thoughts,  and  he  used  all  his  skill  to  make  each 
thought  as  beautiful  as  the  English  language  would  permit.  He 
has  succeeded  in  his  attempt,  and  given  us  in  the  eighteenth  psalm 
a  chaplet  of  very  pearls  ;  but  it  is  a  chaplet  with  the  string  broken. 
It  is  even  more  important  to  compare  the  Authorised  and 
the  Revised  versions  as  regards  this  matter  of  the  connection 
A  v  compared  between  verse  and  verse.  Let  the  reader  study 
with  R.  v.  in  the  older  translation  the  twenty-eighth  chapter 

of  Job,  and  set  himself,  without  the  aid  of  com- 
mentators who  have  had  the  original  before  them,  to  think  out 
from  the  English  alone  the  unity  linking  successive  verses. 

1 .  Surely  there  is  a  vein  for  the  silver,  and  a  place  for  gold  where  they 
fine  it. 

2.  Iron  is  taken  out  of  the  earth,  and  brass  is  molten  out  of  the  stone. 

[Already  the  clauses  fall  sweetly  upon  the  ear,  though  the  point  of 
what  is  being  said  is  hardly  yet  apparent.] 

3.  He  setteth  an  end  to  darkness,  and  searcheth  out  all  perfection : 
the  stones  of  darkness,  and  the  shadow  of  death. 

[This  seems  like  some  very  general  glorification  of  God  :  but  the 
drift  of  the  whole  is  still  vague.] 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  89 

4.  The   flood  breaketh   out   from   the   inhabitant;    even  the   waters 
forgotten  of  the  foot :  they  are  dried  up,  they  are  gone  away  from 
men. 

[Can  any  clear  sense  be  attached  to  these  words?  The  only 
certainty  seems  to  be  that  they  have  no  connection  with  the 
preceding  verse,  as  that  had  none  with  what  went  before.  Yet 
the  words  which  immediately  follow  seem  to  announce  a  new 
topic.] 

5.  As  for  the  earth, out  of  it  cometh  bread:  and  under  it  is  turned  up 
as  it  were  fire. 

6.  The  stones  of  it  are  the  place  of  sapphires:  and  it  hath  dust  of 
gold. 

[Various  as  are  the  topics  presented  so  far,  yet  the  next  words 
announce  one  more.] 

7.  There  is  a  path  which  no  fowl  knoweth,  and  which  the  vulture's 
eye  hath  not  seen : 

8.  The  lion's  whelps  have  not  trodden  it,  nor  the  fierce  lion  passed 
by  it. 

9.  He  putteth  forth  his  hand  — 

[Apparently  we  have  here  returned  to  the  general  glorification  of 
God  in  nature  upon  which  the  third  verse  touched.] 

9.    He   putteth   forth  his   hand  upon  the  rock;    he  overturneth  the 
mountains  by  the  roots. 

10.  He  cutteth  out  rivers  among  the  rocks;   and  his  eye  seeth  every 
precious  thing. 

11.  He  bindeth  the  floods  from  overflowing;    and  the   thing   that  is 
hid  bringeth  he  forth  to  light. 

At  this  point,  in  place  of  a  string  of  distinct  topics,  we  suddenly 
come  upon  a  train  of  connected  reasoning.  Where,  asks  the 
speaker,  shall  wisdom  be  found?  and,  after  searching  all  possible 
sources,  and  weighing  wisdom  against  every  form  of  wealth,  he 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  only  God  knows  the  origin  of  wis- 
dom, and  that  he  who  created  the  universe  interwove  righteous- 
ness into  its  structure.  Is  it  not  strange  that  within  the  limits 


90        FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

of  the  same  chapter  should  be  found,  first  the  wandering  from 
topic  to  topic,  and  then  the  coherent  working  from  question  to 
answer?  Yet  more  strange  that  the  discordant  halves  of  the 
chapter  should  be  linked  by  the  conjunction  But? 

Now  let  the  same  passage  be  read  in  the  Revised  Version. 

Surely  there  is  a  mine  — 
[At  the  very  outset  has  come  the  key  word  to  the  whole.J 

Surely  there  is  a  mine  for  silver, 

And  a  place  for  gold  which  they  refine. 

Iron  is  taken  out  of  the  earth, 

And  brass  is  molten  out  of  the  stone. 

Man  setteth  an  end  to  darkness, 

[What  we  are  reading  is  not  a  description  of  God,  but  of  the 
miner.] 

And  searcheth  out  to  the  furthest  bound 

The  stones  of  thick  darkness  and  of  the  shadow  of  death, 

He  breaketh  open  a  shaft  away  from  where  men  sojourn; 

They  are  forgotten  of  the  foot  that  passeth  by; 

They  hang  afar  from  men,  they  swing  to  and  fro. 

[We  can  almost  see  the  miner  descending  in  his  cage  into  the 
depths  of  the  earth,  far  beneath  the  heedless  passers-by  on  the 
surface.  And  now  a  relevancy  appears  for  the  next  verse. \ 

As  for  the  earth,  out  of  it  cometh  bread : 

And  underneath  it  is  turned  up  as  it  were  by  fire. 

The  stones  thereof  are  the  place  of  sapphires, 

And  it  hath  dust  of  gold. 

That  path  — 

[Of  course,  the  path  of  the  miner  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.] 

That  path  no  bird  of  prey  knoweth, 

Neither  hath  the  falcon's  eye  seen  it: 

The  proud  beasts  have  not  trodden  it, 

Nor  hath  the  fierce  lion  passed  thereby. 

He  putteth  forth  his  hand  upon  the  flinty  rock; 

[It  is  still  the  miner  that  is  spoken  of.] 


THE  HIGHER   UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  91 

He  overturneth  the  mountains  by  the  roots; 

He  cutteth  out  channels  among  the  rocks; 

And  his  eye  seeth  every  precious  thing. 

He  bindeth  the  streams  that  they  trickle  not; 

And  the  thing  that  is  hid  bringeth  he  forth  to  light. 

Read  in  a  version  which  brings  the  idea  of  connected  literature  to 
bear  upon  the  Bible,  the  passage  which  before  seemed  a  series 
of  disconnected  sayings  is  seen  to  resolve  itself  into  a  simple  unity, 
—  a  brilliant  picture  of  mining  operations.  Nay,  the  whole  chap- 
ter now  becomes  a  unity,  for  we  catch  the  connection  of  its  two 
halves  :  there  are  mines  out  of  which  men  dig  gold  and  silver  and 
precious  stones,  but  where  is  the  mine  out  of  which  we  may  bring 
wisdom  ? 

It  is  impossible  to  insist  too  strongly  upon  this  difference  be- 
tween the  Revised  Version  of  the  Bible  and  its  predecessors,  a 
difference  of  kind  and  not  of  degree,  and  one  which 
is  as  wide  as  the  distinction  between  the  words  sentiai  for  liter- 
'text'  and  'context.'  The  English  reader  need  arystudy 
not  feel  any  difficulty  on  the  ground  of  the  disfavour  with  which 
the  Revised  Version  has  in  many  quarters  been  received.  Such 
reception  has  been  the  regular  fate  of  revisions  from  St.  Jerome's 
day  downwards.  The  Authorised  Version  had  itself  to  encounter 
the  same  opposition.  It  is  said  to  have  been  a  full  half  century 
before  this  work  of  King  James's  translators  came  into  general 
use ;  and  in  the  interval  we  have  on  record  the  opinion  of  a 
scholar  and  divine,  who,  asked  by  the  king,  declared  he  would 
be  torn  by  wild  horses  rather  than  urge  so  badly  executed  a  ver- 
sion upon  the  churches.  The  whole  discussion  of  the  subject 
seems  to  me  to  have  been  conducted  on  a  wrong  footing.  The 
critics  will  take  single  verses  or  expressions,  and,  as  it  were,  test 
them  with  their  mental  palate  to  see  whether  the  literary  flavour 
of  the  old  or  the  new  be  superior.  But  comparisons  of  this  kind 
are  a  sheer  impossibility.  No  one,  least  of  all  a  cultured  critic, 
can  separate  in  his  mind  between  the  sense  of  beauty  which  comes 
from  association,  and  the  beauty  which  is  intrinsic ;  the  softening 


92         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

effect  of  time  and  familiarity  is  needed  before  any  translation  can 
in  word  and  phrase  assume  the  even  harmony  of  a  classic.  Mean- 
while the  consideration  here  contended  for  —  the  unique  excel- 
lence of  the  Revised  Version  in  the  matter  of  connectedness  and 
the  Higher  Unity  —  is  beyond  dispute.  The  true  issue  between  the 
Authorised  and  the  Revised  versions  is  the  question  whether 
the  Bible  is  to  be  treated  as  a  collection  of  sayings,  each  verse  an 
independent  whole,  or  whether  the  first  duty  of  an  interpreter  is 
to  associate  a  text  with  its  context.  What  answer  the  theologian 
will  return  to  this  question  it  is  not  the  province  of  this  book  to 
determine.  But  speaking  from  the  literary  point  of  view,  I  make 
bold  to  say  that  the  reader  who  confines  himself  to  the  Authorised 
Version  excludes  himself  from  half  the  beauty  of  the  Bible. 

To  vindicate  the  importance  of  the  Higher  Unity  in  applica- 
tion to  Biblical  literature  is  our  first  duty.     Our   second    is   to 
The  Higher  Unity  g11^  ourselves  from  forming  too  limited   a   con- 
assumes  variety     ception    of  it.      When  we   try    to    think   out   the 
connectedness  of  some  sacred  poem  or  discourse, 
we  must  be  prepared  to  find  its  unity  assuming  forms  other  than 
those  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  literature  of  the  present  day. 
The  simplest  type  of  unity  is  where  a  whole  poem  is  no  more 
than  the  working  out  of  a  single  idea.     I  have  had  occasion  in  a 
former  chapter  to  cite  the  hundred  and  fourteenth 
psalm,  and  have  shown  how  it  connects  the  deliv- 


erance from  Egypt  with  the  new  conception  of  a 
Deity  accompanying  with  his  presence  a  journeying  nation. 
Every  line  of  the  psalm  is  filled  with  this  idea  ;  there  is  no  other 
thought  in  the  poem.  A  unity  so  clear  presents  no  difficulty. 

A  variation  from  this  is  such  a  case  as  the  hundred  and  thirty 
ninth  psalm.     This  is  a  lyric  of  fifty-two  lines  ;  its  opening  ana 
Unity  of  Transi-    c^osmg  thoughts  are  antagonistic  to  one  another, 
tion  the   Divine  Omnipresence  being  dreaded  in  the 

Psaim  cxxxix        Qne  case  anj  m  ^Q  other  case  desired.     Yet  the 

poem  presents  no  difficulty  in  regard  to  the  connection  of  its 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  93 

thought,  for  we  are  able  to  see  the  exact  point  where  the  one 
train  of  feeling  begins  to  change  into  the  other.  At  the  outset  the 
realisation  of  omniscience  and  omnipresence  lies  like  a  weight 
upon  the  poet's  mind. 

O  LORD,  thou  hast  searched  me,  and  known  me ! 

Thou  knowest  my  downsitting  and  mine  uprising, 

Thou  understandest  my  thought  afar  off. 

Thou  searchest  out  my  path  and  my  lying  down, 

And  art  acquainted  with  all  my  ways. 

For  there  is  not  a  word  in  my  tongue, 

But  lo,  O  LORD,  thou  knowest  it  altogether. 

Thou  hast  beset  me  behind  and  before, 

And  laid  thine  hand  upon  me. 

The  burden  becomes  intolerable,  and  the  poet  would  fain  throw 

it  off. 

Such  knowledge  is  too  wonderful  for  me; 

It  is  high,  I  cannot  attain  unto  it. 

Whither  shall  I  go  from  thy  spirit  ? 

Or  whither  shall  I  flee  from  thy  presence  ? 

If  I  ascend  up  into  heaven,  thou  art  there : 

If  I  make  my  bed  in  Sheol,  behold,  thou  art  there. 

If  I  take  the  wings  of  the  morning, 

And  dwell  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  sea; 

Even  there  shall  thy  hand  lead  me, 

And  thy  right  hand  shall  hold  me. 

If  I  say,  Surely  the  darkness  shall  overwhelm  me, 

And  the  light  about  me  shall  be  night; 

Even  the  darkness  hideth  not  from  thee, 

But  the  night  shineth  as  the  day : 

The  darkness  and  the  light  are  both  alike  to  thee. 

The  sense  of  oppression  can  intensify  yet '  further,  and  the  next 
verse  extends  it  backwards  in  time,  as  previous  verses  had  made 
it  stretch  through  all  space. 

For  thou  hast  possessed  my  reins : 

Thou  hast  covered  me  in  my  mother's  womb. 

It  is  just  here,  where  the  effect  is  at  its  height,  that  the  turn  comes. 
The  mysteries  of  the  womb  suggest  to  the  poet  that  this  Divine 


94         FIRST  PRINCIPLES  IN  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

watchfulness  from  which  he  cannot  escape  is  the  same  watchful 
care  which,  in  his  helplessness,  built  him  up  into  the  being  he  is. 
The  current  of  thought  begins  to  flow  back  —  for  the  structure  of 
the  psalm  is  antistrophic  as  well  as  enveloped. 

I  will  give  thanks  unto  thee ;   for  I  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made : 
Wonderful  are  thy  works, 
And  that  my  soul  knoweth  right  well. 
My  frame  was  not  hidden  from  thee, 
When  I  was  made  in  secret, 

And  curiously  wrought  in  the  lowest  parts  of  th,e  earth. 
Thine  eyes  did  see  mine  unperfect  substance, 
And  in  thy  book  were  all  my  members  written, 
Which  day  by  day  were  fashioned, 
When  as  yet  there  was  none  of  them. 

The  besetting  watchfulness  becomes  a  precious  thought  to  the 
psalmist ;  most  precious  of  all,  the  incalculableness  of  its  extent. 

How  precious  also  are  thy  thoughts l  unto  me,  O  God ! 

How  great  is  the  sum  of  them ! 

If  I  should  count  them,  they  are  more  in  number  than  the  sand : 

When  I  awake,  I  am  still  with  thee. 

The  new  thought  gains  force,  and  takes  fire  in  a  burst  of  purity. 

Surely  thou  wilt  slay  the  wicked,  O  God : 

Depart  from  me  therefore,  ye  bloodthirsty  men. 

For  they  speak  against  thee  wickedly, 

And  thine  enemies  take  thy  name  in  vain. 

Do  not  I  hate  them,  O  LORD,  that  hate  thee  ? 

And  am  not  I  grieved  with  those  that  rise  up  against  thee? 

I  hate  them  with  perfect  hatred : 

I  count  them  mine  enemies. 

The  new  train  of  thought  has  reached  its  goal,  and,  as  the  enve- 
lope figure  completes  itself,  the  refrain  reappears  changed  and 
enlarged,  so  that  the  burden  has  become  an  aspiration. 

Search  me,  O  God,  and  know  my  heart : 

Try  me,  and  know  my  thoughts : 

And  see  if  there  be  any  way  of  wickedness  in  me, 

And  lead  me  in  the  way  everlasting. 

-  That  is,  the  thoughts  which  God  bestows  on  the  psalmist. 


THE  HIGHER   UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  95 

The  whole  movement  has  been  a  subtle  passage  from  the  one 
to  the  other  of  the  opposing  trains  of  thought :  the  psalm  is  made 
one  by  the  Unity  of  Transition. 

A  more  difficult  case  arises  where  a  portion  of  literature  is  seen 
to  commence  with  one  topic,  to  end  with  a  topic  entirely  different, 
while  no  part  of  it  can  be  indicated  as  conveying 
a  transition  from  the  one  set  of  ideas  to  the  other,  and  Antithesis 
A  notable  instance   is   the   much  discussed   nine-  Psalmxiz 
teenth  psalm.     The  first  six  verses  of  this  psalm  are  entirely  occu- 
pied with  the  heavens  above  our  heads.     Their  starry  marvels  are 
conceived  as  a  silent  language  in  which  the  whole  world  day  by 
day  may  read  of  a  Creator ;  the  extended  sky  is  pictured  as  the 
tent  of  a  hero,  and  this  hero  is  the  Sun,  who,  forever  at  his  best, 
runs  his  daily  course,  scattering  the  mighty  heat  which  no  corner 
of  the  earth  can  escape.     Passing  to  the  next  verse  we  find  our- 
selves without  any  warning  in  a  totally  different  set  of  ideas. 

The  law  of  the  LORD  is  perfect,  restoring  the  soul : 

The  testimony  of  the  LORD  is  sure,  making  wise  the  simple : 

The  precepts  of  the  LORD  are  right,  rejoicing  the  heart : 

The  commandment  of  the  LORD  is  pure,  enlightening  the  eyes. 

The  fear  of  the  LORD  is  clean,  enduring  for  ever : 

The  judgements  of  the  LORD  are  true,  and  righteous  altogether. 

With  topics  so  different,  and  no  sign  of  any  links  to  connect  them, 
what  has  become  of  the  Higher  Unity  ?  The  answer  is  that  it  is  to 
be  looked  for  in  this  very  absence  of  transition  :  we  have  here  a 
literary  effect  which  may  be  called  the  Unity  of  Contrast  or  Antith- 
esis. The  point  of  the  poem  may  be  summed  up  as  the  equal  ado- 
ration side  by  side  of  the  physical  and  the  moral  law.  No  literary 
device  could  make  the  equality  of  the  two  so  forcible  as  this  simple 
placing  of  them  side  by  side  without  a  word  of  explanation. 

No  doubt  this  is  a  matter  in  which  difference  of  opinion  arises ; 
and  its  discussion  is  of  importance  as  going  down 
to  fundamental  principles  of  literary  criticism.     It  is 
urged,  by  those  who  speak  with  the  highest  author- 
ity, that  the  disparity  between  the  two  parts  of  this  nineteenth 


96         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

psalm  is  too  great  to  be  covered  by  any  unity  of  idea ;  that  we  are 
therefore  driven  to  the  supposition  that  the  connection  of  these 
two  pieces  of  literature  has  been  effected  by  those  through 
whose  hands  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  have  passed  on  their  way 
to  us.  The  contention  is  further  supported  by  the  plea  that  these 
two  sections  of  the  nineteenth  psalm  differ  in  more  than  subject- 
matter  :  they  represent  literary  styles  that  are  totally  different, 
styles  moreover  that  are  seen  upon  a  wide  survey  of  Biblical 
literature  to  distinguish  respectively  an  early  and  a  late  literary 
period. 

I  do  not  dispute  these  allegations.     But  in  resisting  the  infer- 
ence derived  from  them  I  would  commence  by  deprecating  the 

confusion    so    commonly    made  —  if  not    by   the 
Questions  of  au- 
thorship not  an      critics   themselves,  yet   by  a   large    proportion  of 

essential  part  of     their  readers — between  two  things  which  should 

literary  study          ,       .  .     .  ... 

be  kept  entirely  separate  :  the  confusion  between 
literary  unity  and  unity  of  authorship.  Indeed,  if  I  may  widen 
the  discussion  for  a  moment,  I  should  like  to  express  the  opinion 
that  the  whole  study  of  literature  is  placed  at  a  disadvantage  by 
the  intrusion  into  it  of  quite  a  distinct  thing  —  the  study  of  authors. 
A  piece  of  literature  is  apt  to  be  put  before  us  as  a  performance 
of  some  author :  we  are  expected  to  examine  it  with  a  view  to 
applauding  or  censuring  this  author ;  we  are  minutely  informed  as 
to  the  circumstances  under  which  he  did  his  work  ;  one  production 
of  his  is  associated  with  companion  productions,  as  if  the  main 
raison  d'etre  of  them  all  was  to  enable  us  to  form  an  estimate  of 
the  man  who  produced  them.  All  this  may  be  good  in  itself;  but 
it  is  not  the  study  of  literature.  Authors  of  books  may  in  them- 
selves be  as  well  worthy  our  attention  as  statesmen  or  commercial 
magnates  ;  but  no  one  confuses  Constitutional  History  with  biogra- 
phies of  politicians,  or  Political  Economy  with  the  business  his- 
tories of  particular  firms.  And  I  believe  that  the  study  of  literature 
will  never  reach  its  proper  level  until  it  is  realised  that  literature 
is  an  entity  in  itself,  as  well  as  a  function  of  the  individuals  who 
contributed  to  it ;  that  it  has  a  development  and  critical  principles 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  97 

of  its  own,  to  be  considered  independently  of  any  questions  affect- 
ing the  performance  of  particular  authors. 

To  return  to  the  case  immediately  before  us.     It  might  seem  a 
self-evident  contention  that  the  assignment  of  different  ages  to 
different  parts  of  the  nineteenth  psalm  implied  diversity  of  author- 
ship.    I  would  rather  say  that  we  are  separated  Authorshi  in 
from  the  literature  in  question  by  an  interval  so  application  to 
wide  as  to  raise  a  doubt  whether  the  term  '  author-   Biblical  P°etry 
ship '  in  application  to  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Bible  be  not  alto- 
gether an  anachronism. 

We  live  in  the  age  of  books ;  not  only  so,  but  we  have  travelled 
so  far  into  this  book  age  that  we  have  forgotten  the  times  when 
literature  was  affected  by  anything  else  than  our  habits  of  written 
composition.  Yet  the  study  of  Comparative  Literature  reveals 
everywhere  a  period  of  literary  activity  long  preceding  the  earliest 
book ;  a  floating  poetry  destined  to  influence  periods  much  later 
than  its  own,  yet  preserved  only  by  oral  tradition  without  any  aid 
from  writing,  while  the  processes  of  its  composition  have  been 
regulated  entirely  by  the  phenomena  of  spoken  literature.  How- 
ever widely  apart  we  may  date  the  different  parts  of  the  Bible,  yet 
the  whole  approaches  much  more  closely  the  influences  of  this 
early  spoken  poetry  than  the  modern  literatures  from  which  we 
draw  our  ideas. 

It  is  precisely  in  the  matter  of  this  relationship  between  literature 
and  '  authors '  that  the  difference  between  early  and  late  poetry  is 
most  apparent.  The  change  which  the  ages  have  brought  about 
in  our  conception  of  authorship  is  not  unlike  the  change  that  has 
come  over  our  conception  of  land.  Our  late  civilisation  takes  for 
granted  the  idea  of  individual  ownership  of  land.  But  we  know 
that  to  primitive  society  this  idea  was  unthinkable  :  land  belonged 
to  the  community,  and  all  that  individuals  could  have  would  be 
rights  over  the  land.  Similarly  we  associate  a  book  with  an  individ- 
ual author ;  we  sacredly  guard  the  written  book  as  his  property ; 
if  the  author  alters  it  it  becomes  a  new  '  edition,'  while  if  the  author 
be  dead  the  form  of  the  book  is  fixed  forever  and  no  one  may 


98         FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

touch  it.  But  for  the  floating  literature  of  spoken  poetry  composi- 
tion was  in  the  hands  of  a  class  of  bards  and  minstrels,  or,  shall  we 
say,  of  priests  and  sacred  singers  ;  what  each  individual  produced 
was  regarded  as  common  property,  which  his  brethren  used  with- 
out any  sense  of  indebtedness.  In  using  one  another's  composi- 
tions they  revised  and  altered  them,  until  each  delivery  of  a  poem 
might  make  a  fresh  '  edition ' ;  and  thus  the  composition  of  any 
poem  was  a  growth  extending  through  generation  after  generation, 
and  the  united  product  of  many  minds. 

Now  the  psalms  of  the  Bible  were  the  product  of  individual 
poets,  but  of  poets  living  in  periods  when  the  influences  of  floating 
literature  were  largely  felt  in  determining  habits  of  composition. 
And  this  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  every  discussion  of  the  subject. 
It  is  common  to  speak  of  David's  '  writing '  a  psalm  :  the  phrase 
is  full  of  misleading  associations.  We  cannot  even  assume  that 
writing,  though  used  for  many  purposes,  was  in  David's  time 
applied  to  the  preservation  of  poetical  productions ;  but  we  may 
be  quite  certain  that  the  early  psalmists  did  not,  like  nineteenth 
century  poets,  think  with  pen  in  hand.  Are  we  again  to  suppose 
that  Hebrew  poets  when  they  composed  a  psalm  entered  it  at 
some  Stationers'  Hall,  with  all  rights  reserved?  We  know  the 
very  opposite  :  the  authors  of  our  psalms  would  send  their  poems 
"to  the  Chief  Musician  upon  stringed  instruments,"  or  to  "the 
Sons  of  Korah."  That  is  to  say,  these  Biblical  psalms  when 
composed  were  committed  to  the  custody  of  a  body  of  minstrels 
or  sacred  singers,  and  so  may  be  expected  to  present  the  phe- 
nomena of  oral  poetry  in  addition  to  the  features  of  individual 
authorship.  Thus  the  psalms  of  the  Bible  in  their  composition 
unite  the  advantages  that  belong  to  early  and  to  late  poetry  :  the 
psalm  as  it  leaves  the  original  poet  is  not  a  fixed  thing,  it  is  only 
just  started  on  a  career  of  life  in  the  hands  of  living  performers, 
through  whom  it  can  draw  to  itself  the  best  thoughts  of  the  ages 
through  which  it  is  to  pass.  These  later  modifications  may  be 
merely  matters  of  phraseology  or  greater  fulness  of  diction ;  they 
may  be  distinct  additions,  like  the  final  verses  of  the  fifty-first 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  99 

psalm,  which  make  a  poem  of  personal  penitence  serve  also  as  an 
expression  of  national  humiliation.  Or  they  may  even  amount  to 
such  a  transformation  as  the  nineteenth  psalm  seems  to  have 
undergone,  when  the  original  song  of  the  heavens,  touching  an 
age  of  enthusiasm  for  the  law,  inspired  the  thought  that  what  the 
Sun  is  to  the  world  without,  God's  law  is  to  the  world  within.  If 
we  assume  David  to  be  the  '  author '  of  the  first  six  verses,  then 
no  one  has  a  better  right  than  David  to  be  considered  the  '  author ' 
of  the  fresh  thoughts  his  words  have  inspired.  Or  the  original 
song  might  be  considered  the  'author'  of  the  additions  it  has 
begotten  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  used  it.  But  it  would 
be  still  better  to  say  that  the  whole  idea  of  '  authorship '  is  a 
conception  proper  to  modern  literature,  and  can  do  nothing  but 
mislead  when  applied  to  the  wider  literary  phenomena  of  the 
Bible. 

But  I  am  comparatively  indifferent  as  to  whether  the  reader 
does  or  does  not  accept  this  conclusion  with  reference  to  the 
authorship  of  the  poem.  What  I  am  concerned 

,          ,.  ,.         ,         ,  .  ..   Diversity  of 

to  insist  upon  is  that  diversity  of  authorship  —  if  authorship  not 
such  there  be  —  is  no  bar  to  the  literary  unity  of  inconsistent  with 
the  nineteenth  psalm.  This  consideration  again 
demands  the  wider  conception  of  literature  that  belongs  to 
antiquity.  Let  an  illustration  be  permitted.  If  a  man  enquires 
as  to  the  building  of  some  modern  dwelling-house,  he  will  proba- 
bly be  able  to  learn  the  year  in  which  it  was  built  and  the  name 
of  the  architect.  It  will  be  different  if  he  applies  his  investigation 
to  some  great  cathedral.  The  original  architect  of  the  cathedral 
himself  completed  (we  will  suppose)  the  choir  and  transepts,  and 
built  them  in  the  Early  English  style.  Then  the  work  stood  still 
for  several  generations ;  when  the  nave  was  added  the  whole  style 
of  architecture  had  changed.  The  west  front  has  been  added 
later  still,  and  reflects  details  of  a  later  age.  But  the  original 
architect  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  pull  down  the  whole  of  the 
church  his  cathedral  was  superseding ;  and  hence  we  find  a  beau- 
tiful Norman  doorway  in  the  middle  of  the  Early  English  portion 


100       FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

of  the  building.  And  the  sexton  takes  the  visitor  down  to  the 
crypt  and  shows  him  fragments  of  a  yet  earlier  Saxon  church  that 
had  stood  on  the  same  spot.  Here,  then,  we  have  a  building  that 
displays  five  different  architectural  styles,  the  product  of  five  dif- 
ferent ages  :  do  we  call  such  a  building  five  cathedrals  or  one 
cathedral?  The  psalms  have  the  artistic  range  of  the  cathedral, 
not  of  the  mere  dwelling-house ;  they  reflect  the  literary  archi- 
tecture of  the  many  ages  down  which  they  have  travelled,  and  are 
often  seen  to  have  absorbed  into  themselves  '  oracles '  yet  older 
than  the  date  of  their  first  composition.  But  with  the  psalm,  as 
with  the  cathedral,  none  of  these  circumstances  need  militate 
against  the  artistic  unity  of  the  whole. 

The  literary  unity,  then,  of  this  nineteenth  psalm  becomes  a 
question  of  the  ideas  underlying  its  two  parts,  and  of  the  mode 
in  which  these  ideas  are  brought  together.  For  the  ideas  them- 
selves, the  union  in  one  thought  of  the  physical  and  the  moral 
universe  has  appealed  to  many  minds.  It  is  as  old  as  Zoroaster : 

He  who  first  planned  that  these  skies  should  be  clothed  with  lights, 
He  by  his  wisdom  is  creator  of  Righteousness,  wherewith  to  support  the  best 
mind.1 

The  philosopher  Kant,  again,  was  wont  to  speak  of  the  two  per- 
petual wonders,  the  starry  heavens  above  and  the  moral  law  within. 
And  a  still  closer  association  of  the  two  ideas  has  inspired  a  line  of 
Wordsworth,  who  says,  addressing  Duty  : 

Thou  dost  preserve  the  stars  from  wrong; 

And  the  most  ancient  heavens  through  Thee  are  fresh  and  strong. 

That  the  two  worlds  should  in  the  Biblical  poem  be  placed  side  by 
side  without  further  comment  is  surely  intelligible  to  our  aesthetic 
sense.  Art  in  general  recognises  the  simple  con- 

trast  and  antithesis-     But  more  than  that> the  Vei7 
Antithesis  section  of  art  we  are  considering —  the  psalms  of 

1  Yasna  xxxi.  9.  I  am  indebted  for  this  parallel  to  Rev.  J.  Hope  Moulton,  late 
Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge. 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  101 

the  Bible  —  give  us  other  examples  of  this  same  poetic  device. 
A  closely  analogous  case  is  the  thirty-sixth  psalm, 
which  devotes  four  verses  to  a  picture  of  character 
so  utterly  corrupt  that  evil  has  become  a  law  unto  itself;  and  then 
abruptly,  without  connecting  links,  sets  against  the  dark  back- 
ground of  supreme  evil  a  supreme  good  —  a  loving-kindness  as 
wide  as  the  heavens,  a  righteousness  as  high  as  the  mountains, 
judgments  as  profound  as  the  sea,  bounty  as  diffused  as  the  light.1 

Again,  among  the  '  Songs  of  Ascents '  is  found  a 
,          ,     .        .        ,         ,         -      ,  .   ,  Psalm  cxxvii 

short  lyric,  the  thought  of  which  would  be  obscure 

did  we  not  recognise  in  it  one  of  these  antithetic  contrasts  between 
two  types  of  life  —  the  life  of  anxious  toil  and  the  quiet  home 
life  —  made  effective  by  the  simple  juxtaposition  of  the  two 

descriptions. 

Strophe 

Except  the  LORD  build  the  house, 
They  labour  in  vain  that  build  it : 
Except  the  LORD  keep  the  city, 
The  watchman  waketh  but  in  vain. 

It  is  vain  for  you  that  ye  rise  up  early, 

And  so  late  take  rest, 

And  eat  the  bread  of  toil. 

Antistrophe 

So  he  giveth  unto  his  beloved  sleep. 

Lo,  children  are  an  heritage  of  the  LORD  : 

And  the  fruit  of  the  womb  is  his  reward. 
As  arrows  in  the  hand  of  a  mighty  man, 
So  are  the  children  of  youth. 

Happy  is  the  man  that  hath  his  quiver  full  of  them : 
They  shall  not  be  ashamed  when  they  speak  with  their  enemies 

in  the  gate. 

Our  examination,  then,  of  this  nineteenth  psalm,  when  once  dis- 
turbing questions  of  authorship  are  laid  aside,  reveals  a  connection 

-  The  parallelism  of  form  between  this  and  the  nineteenth  psalm  is  close  :  besides 
the  main  point  (of  antithesis  without  connecting  links)  th'ere  is  in  both  the  culmi- 
nation of  the  whole  in  prayer. 


102       FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE 

of  thought  which  is  both  impressive  in  itself,  and  also  an  addition 

to  the  types  of  Higher  Unity  under  which  Biblical  lyrics  can  be 

classified. 

In  treating  this  general  matter  of  the  Higher  Unity  it  is  necessary 

to  mention  what  may  be  called  the  Unity  of  Aggregation.  This 
can  be  brought  out  best  by  the  aid  of  illustrations. 
If  the  reader  examines  the  Book  of  Proverbs  and, 
discarding  the  numbering  of  chapters  which  has 

no  literary  significance,  seeks  to  divide  it  into  the  literary  com- 
positions of  which  it  is  made  up,  he  will  be  struck 

>rover  xv.  ^.^  ^  different  relations  in  which  successive 
verses  stand  to  one  another  in  different  parts  of 

the  book.     Let  him,  for  example,  read  the  last  five  verses  of  the 

twenty-fifth  chapter. 

It  is  better  to  dwell  in  the  corner  of  the  housetop, 
Than  with  a  contentious  woman  in  a  wide  house. 


As  cold  waters  to  a  thirsty  soul, 
So  is  good  news  from  a  far  country. 


As  a  troubled  fountain,  and  a  corrupted  spring, 

So  is  a  righteous  man  that  giveth  way  before  the  wicked. 


It  is  not  good  to  eat  much  honey : 

So  for  men  to  search  out  their  own  glory  is  not  glory. 


He  whose  spirit  is  without  restraint 

Is  like  a  city  that  is  broken  down  and  hath  no  wall. 

Nothing  is  plainer  than  that  we  have  here  five  entirely  distinct 
compositions ;  all  that  the  "  men  of  Hezekiah  "  have  done  is  to 
collect  them.  Next,  let  the  reader  take  four  verses  that  follow 
one  another  in  the  twenty-sixth  chapter. 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  103 

The  sluggard  saith,  There  is  a  lion  in  the  way;        Proverbs  xxvi. 
A  lion  is  in  the  streets.  T3-i6 

* 

As  the  door  turneth  upon  its  hinges, 
So  doth  the  sluggard  upon  his  bed. 
* 

The  sluggard  burieth  his  hand  in  the  dish; 
It  wearieth  him  to  bring  it  again  to  his  mouth. 

* 

The  sluggard  is  wiser  in  his  own  conceit 
Than  seven  men  that  can  render  a  reason. 

Here  again  we  have  entirely  separate  sayings,  but  they  are  all 
sayings  on  the  subject  of  the  sluggard.  The  "  men  of  Hezekiah  " 

have  not  merely  collected,  they  have  in  this  instance 

„  .  .         ,       Proverbs  vi.  1-5 

arranged  their  matter.     For  completeness  let  the 

reader  turn  to  an  entirely  different  part  of  the  book,  and  read 
(say)  the  first  five  verses  of  chapter  six. 

My  son,  if  thou  art  become  surety  for  thy  neighbour, 

If  thou  hast  stricken  thy  hands  for  a  stranger, 

Thou  art  snared  with  the  words  of  thy  mouth, 

Thou  art  taken  with  the  words  of  thy  mouth. 

Do  this  now,  my  son,  and  deliver  thyself, 

Seeing  thou  art  come  into  the  hand  of  thy  neighbour; 

Go,  humble  thyself,  and  importune  thy  neighbour. 

Give  not  sleep  to  thine  eyes,  nor  slumber  to  thine  eyelids. 

Deliver  thyself  as  a  roe  from  the  hand  of  the  hunter, 

And  as  a  bird  from  the  hand  of  the  fowler. 

Here  it  is  clear  that  we  have  no  collection  of  distinct  sayings,  but 
a  single  composition  with  an  organic  unity  of  its  own.  The  sacred 
literature  is  thus  found  to  include  both  what  in  modern  phraseol- 
ogy are  called  original  compositions,  and  also  collections  of  sepa- 
rate brief  compositions  put  together  with  or  without  arrangement. 
The  shorter  sayings  are  obvious  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  But  at 
the  proper  place  we  shall  see  that  they  belong  equally  to  other 
departments  of  Biblical  literature :  that  Prophecy  includes  short 


104       FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERA  TURE 

prophetic  utterances  collected  together  as  well  as  longer  dis- 
courses, and  that  even  a  lyric  composition  may  be  constructed  of 
separate  lyrics  in  combination.  Many  mistakes  of  interpretation 
may  be  avoided  by  recognising  the  Unity  of  Aggregation. 

One  more  consideration  will  complete  our  classification  of  the 

different  forms  that  may  be  assumed  by  the  Higher  Unity  in  the 

literary  compositions  of  the  Bible.     It  will  some- 

cJ2n°sfSeTal  times  haPPen  that  the  connection  binding  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  poem  into  a  unity  is  to  be  looked 
for,  not  in  the  poem  itself,  but  in  the  external  use  made  of  it.     A 
notable  example  is  the  twenty-fourth  psalm.     Any  one  reading  this 

psalm  with  a  view  to  catching  its  general  drift  and 
Psalm  xxiv 

connection  will  be  struck  with  a  break  between  its 

sixth  and  seventh  verses,  at  which  point  there  is  a  change  both  of 
form  and  matter  so  considerable  as  inevitably  to  raise  the  doubt 
whether  the  whole  psalm  can  be  a  single  composition.  The  diffi- 
culty is  met  by  identifying  the  poem  with  a  particular  ceremonial, 
into  the  different  parts  of  which  the  two  halves  of  the  psalm  fit 
like  a  key  into  the  wards  of  a  lock. 

This  ceremonial  was  the  bringing  of  the  Ark  to  Jerusalem. 
There  is  perhaps  no  single  day  in  the  far  distance  of  antiquity 
which  we  are  able  to  follow  with  such  minuteness  as  this  central 
day  of  King  David's  career ;  and  in  a  later  chapter  we  shall  see 
that  all  the  songs  composed  for  the  festival  can  be  recovered. 
The  twenty-fourth  psalm  represents  the  words  of  the  processional 
march  from  the  House  of  Obed-Edom  to  the  Gates  of  Jerusalem. 
There  seem  to  have  been  two  points  in  this  march  at  which  the 
instruments  of  fir  wood,  harps,  psalteries,  timbrels,  castanets  and 
cymbals  gave  place  to  vocal  celebration.  The  first  was  when  the 
procession  halted  at  the  foot  of  the  high  hill  on  which  the  city 
stood ;  and  here  it  is  that  the  first  six  verses  of  the  psalm  have 
their  fitness.  After  a  burst  of  adoration  to  the  Creator  of  the 
world  —  one  of  the  perfectly  general  ascriptions  of  praise  with 
which  psalms  so  often  commence  —  the  special  anthem  proceeds 
as  follows : 


THE  HIGHER   UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  105 

Who  shall  ascend  into  the  hill  of  the  LORD? 

And  who  shall  stand  in  his  holy  place  ? 
He  that  hath  clean  hands,  and  a  pure  heart; 

Who  hath  not  lifted  up  his  soul  unto  vanity, 

And  hath  not  sworn  deceitfully, 
He  shall  receive  a  blessing  from  the  LORD, 

And  righteousness  from  the  God  of  his  salvation. 
This  is  the  generation  of  them  that  seek  after  him, 

That  seek  thy  face,  O  God  of  Jacob. 

The  identification  of  these  words  with  the  occasion  to  which  I  am 
referring  becomes  the  stronger  through  something  which  illustrates 
what  has  been  said  above  as  to  the  nature  of  Hebrew  poetry,  and 
how  its  composition  did  not  fix  it  in  one  form,  as  our  writing  does, 
but  left  it  scope  to  adapt  itself  in  the  mouths  of  the  singers  who 
preserved  it  to  changes  of  thought  or  circumstances.  We  have  a 
variant  to  the  anthem  just  cited :  this  is  the  fifteenth  psalm,  and 
a  comparison  of  the  two  poems  is  highly  instructive. 

LORD,  who  shall  sojourn  in  thy  tabernacle  ?  Psalm  xv 

Who  shall  dwell  in  thy  holy  hill? 

He  that  walketh  uprightly, 
And  worketh  righteousness, 
And  speaketh  truth  in  his  heart. 

He  that  slandereth  not  with  his  tongue, 

Nor  doeth  evil  to  his  friend, 

Nor  taketh  up  a  reproach  against  his  neighbour. 

In  whose  eyes  a  reprobate  is  despised; 
But  he  honoureth  them  that  fear  the  LORD. 

He  that  sweareth  to  his  own  hurt,  and  changeth  not. 
He  that  putteth  not  out  his  money  to  usury, 
Nor  taketh  reward  against  the  innocent. 

He  that  doeth  these  things  shall  never  be  moved. 

That  these  are  varying  forms  of  one  poem  is  obvious ;  in  both  the 
same  character  for  the  worshipper  of  Jehovah  is  conveyed  in  the 
same  form  of  lyric  question  and  answer.  The  differences  between 


106        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

them  are  two.  The  fifteenth  psalm  is  much  fuller  in  its  descrip- 
tion, and  yet  this  fulness  is  no  more  than  the  working  out  into 
detail  of  what  the  other  psalm  had  suggested.  Again,  there  is  a 
striking  variation  in  the  wording  of  the  opening  verse.  The 
twenty-fourth  psalm  asks,  "  Who  shall  ascend  into  the  hill  of  the 
LORD,"  the  fifteenth  psalm  phrases  the  question,  "Who  shall 
sojourn."  This  exactly  tallies  with  the  view  here  presented  of 
the  two  poems.  The  one  is  an  anthem  for  a  specific  occasion, 
and  to  the  circumstances  of  that  occasion  —  the  procession  halt- 
ing at  the  foot  of  the  hill  —  the  phrase  is  exactly  relevant,  "  Who 
shall  ascend."  But  when  this  description  of  the  worshipper  of 
Jehovah  is  divorced  from  the  proceedings  of  that  particular  day, 
and  passes  into  general  use,  there  is  no  longer  any  point  in  the 
word  ascend,  and  a  general  term,  sojourn,  is  substituted.  And  it 
is  equally  natural  that  the  brief  suggestive  sketch  should  be  found 
where  the  thought  comes  as  a  single  detail  in  a  long  ceremonial, 
but  that  when  the  fragment  passes  into  use  as  an  independent 
hymn  the  thought  should  expand  and  gather  fulness  and  devo- 
tional beauty. 

The  other  emphatic  point  in  the  march  was  when  the  proces- 
sion drew  up  opposite  the  gates  of  the  city :  this  gives  us  the 
second  part  of  the  twenty-fourth  psalm.  Two  considerations 
should  be  carefully  remembered  by  the  reader.  One  of  these  is 
the  nature  of  the  day's  festival.  It  was  not  a  dedication  of  a 
temple,  but  an  inauguration  of  a  city.  The  tent  in  which  David 
placed  the  Ark  was  clearly  regarded  by  him  as  a  mere  temporary 
convenience ;  the  task  on  which  his  whole  heart  was  bent  was  to 
bring  the  Ark  to  the  city  of  David.  This  Jerusalem  was  an 
ancient  stronghold  of  the  Jebusites ;  to  capture  it  had  been 
David's  greatest  achievement ;  he  wished  to  turn  it  into  the 
metropolis  of  the  military  monarchy  in  which  he,  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  Jehovah,  was  the  principal  figure  :  there  could  then 
be  no  fitter  form  of  inauguration  than  to  transfer  to  the  newly  cap- 
tured city  the  sacred  Symbol  with  the  fullest  military  honours. 
The  psalm  realises  all  this  by  its  formal  call  upon  the  city  gates  to 


THE  HIGHER    UNITY  IN  LITERATURE  107 

open.     But  a  second  point  must  be  noted   before   the  anthem 

becomes  fully  intelligible.     The  historical  account 

II  Sam.  vi 
of  the  ceremonial  gives  striking  prominence  to  a 

particular  title  of  the  Divine  Being  —  the  LORD  OF  HOSTS  :  the 
narrative  opens  by  speaking  of  "  the  Ark  of  God  which  is  called 
by  the  Name,  even  the  name  of  the  LORD  of  hosts  "  ;  it  ends  by 
saying  that  David,  in  dismissing  the  people  to  their  homes,  blessed 
them  "  in  the  name  of  the  LORD  of  hosts."  It  is  clear  that  this 
title  made  a  sort  of  watchword  to  the  day's  proceedings.  With 
the  full  circumstances  before  us  let  us  follow  this  second  section 
of  the  psalm.  The  procession  has  halted  opposite  the  massive 
porch  of  the  time-worn  fortress,  and  in  full  military  form  sum- 
mons it  to  open  its  gates. 

Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates; 
And  be  ye  lift  up,  ye  ancient  doors : 
And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in. 

Warders  answer  from  within  : 

Who  is  the  King  of  glory? 

By  the  simplest  of  poetic  devices  the  anthem  keeps  back  for  a 
time  the  great  Name,  and  answers  with  other  titles  of  Jehovah. 

The  LORD  strong  and  mighty, 
The  LORD  mighty  in  battle. 

The  watchword  has  not  been  spoken,  and  the  gates  refuse  to  open, 
The  summons  must  be  repeated. 

Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates; 
Yea,  lift  them  up,  ye  ancient  doors : 
And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in. 

A  second  time  is  heard  the  challenge  from  within : 

Who  is  this  King  of  glory?  • 

At  last  the  great  Name  is  spoken : 

THE  LORD  OF  HOSTS, 
He  is  the  King  of  glory  1 


i08        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

At  this  word  the  gates  roll  back,  the  procession  enters,  and  Jehovah 
has  taken  possession  of  his  city. 

It  appears  then  that  the  two  sections  of  the  twenty-fourth  psalm 
fit  in  with  two  points  in  the  procession  of  the  Ark  to  Jerusalem : 
the  halt  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  the  climax  in  front  of  the 
gates.  The  psalm  finds  its  unity  in  the  External  Circumstances 
of  its  first  production. 

Enough  has  now  been  said  on  the  subject  of  this  Higher  Unity, 
the  bond  by  which  different  parts  of  a  composition  are  woven 
together  into  a  single  whole.  We  have  seen  that  to  look  for  such 
unity  is  a  foremost  condition  of  literary  appreciation;  and  that 
this  applies  to  the  literature  of  the  Bible,  notwithstanding  diffi- 
culties thrown  in  our  way  by  mediaeval  methods  of  printing  or 
reading  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  We  have  seen,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  in  searching  for  the  unity  of  any  particular  poem  we  must  not 
force  interpretation  through  some  preconceived  idea  of  poetic 
connection,  but  must  be  prepared  to  find  the  Higher  Unity  assum- 
ing various  forms.  We  have  surveyed  some  of  these  forms  :  Sim- 
ple Unity,  Unity  of  Transition,  Unity  of  Antithesis,  Unity  of 
Aggregation,  Unity  of  External  Circumstances.  In  each  case  the 
nature  of  the  unity  must  be  gathered  from  an  examination  of 
the  particular  composition,  and  a  comparison  of  it  with  other 
compositions  of  a  similar  kind. 

So  far  in  this  chapter  we  have  been  engaged  with  what  is  only 
_.  . .  ...  accidental  to  Biblical  literature  in  the  form  in  which 

Distinguishing 

features  of  He-  we  know  it.  But  certain  distinguishing  features  now 
brew  Literature  cajj  for  dlscussiOn  which  are  inherent  in  Hebrew 
literature  itself. 

Two  of  these,  though  of  fundamental  importance,  are  so  obvious 
as  to  need  only  the  briefest  statement.  Hebrew  literature  has  not 

developed  a  separate  and  distinct  Drama  :  although, 
i.  No  separate 
Drama  but  dra-     as  if  to  compensate  for  this,  the  dramatic  impulse 

matic  influence  js  found  in  Hebrew  to  invade  other  regions  of  lit- 
on  other  forms  .  ,  .  ,  , 

erature,  including  such  departments  as  might  have 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  109 

seemed  most  impervious  to  it.  The  current  finding  no  channel 
has  spread  and  diffused  itself.  The  reader  of  the  Bible  knows 
that  he  will  find  in  it  no  acted  play  like  the  plays  of  Shakespeare. 
But  on  the  other  hand  he  will  find  lyric  poems  specially  dramatic 
in  tone,  and  in  Solomon's  Song  a  lyric  idyl  that  impresses  some  of 
its  readers  as  a  complete  drama.  He  will  find,  again,  philosophy 
taking  a  dramatic  shape.  In  the  Book  of  Job  the  dramatic  form 
reaches  an  intensity  not  exceeded  in  any  literature ;  yet  even  here 
there  is  no  independent  drama,  but  the  dramatised  discussion  is 
made  to  rest  on  a  basis  of  epic  story.  What  is  still  more  surpris- 
ing, the  discourses  of  prophecy  are  found  to  be  leavened  by  the 
dramatic  spirit,  and  that  most  concentrated  form  of  Hebrew 
prophecy  which  will  in  this  work  be  called  the  Rhapsody  is  pre- 
eminent in  the  closeness  with  which  it  approaches  to  Drama.  If 
such  things  could  be  made  the  subject  of  measurement,  it  would 
be  safe  to  predict  that  the  mass  of  dramatic  material  in  Biblical 
literature  would  be  not  less  than  that  found  in  other  literatures 
where  Drama  is  a  distinct  form. 

A  second  consideration  must  be  mentioned  as  separating  Hebrew 
from  other  literatures.  When  a  reader  turns  over  the  pages  of  the 

Bible,  the  department  which  will  impress  him  most 

a.  Prophecy  a 
by   its   bulk   and   importance  is   one  that  is   not  special  depart- 

founded  upon  any  element  of  universal  literature.  ment  of  litera- 
This  is  the  department   of  Prophecy.     The  dis- 
tinction of  Prophecy  is  not  one  of  form  but  of  spirit :    Biblical 
Prophecy,  in  a  sense  that  belongs  to  no  other  class  of  literature, 
presents  itself  as  an  actual  Divine  message.      So  far  as  form  is 
concerned  Prophecy  is   not  distinctive  but   comprehensive :   all 
types  of  literature  are  attracted  towards  it,  and,  as  will  be  seen  at 
the  proper  place,  the  various  literary  forms  are  fused  together  into 
a  new  form  in  the  Prophetic  Rhapsody. 

These  two  considerations  will  affect  the  application  to  the  Bible 
of  that  classification  of  literary  forms  which  in  the  last  chapter  was 
obtained  for  universal  literature.  Of  the  six  fundamental  forms 
there  distinguished,  five  will  be  discussed  in  the  four  books  which 


110        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

immediately  follow.  The  Lyric  Poetry  of  the  Bible  will  be  the 
subject  of  Book  II.  Epic  and  its  prose  counterpart  History  are 
conveniently  considered  together :  to  these  Book  III  will  be 
devoted.  Book  IV  will  take  up  the  Biblical  Literature  of  Rhet- 
oric. Book  V  will  be  occupied  with  Scriptural  Philosophy  under 
its  Biblical  name  of  '  Wisdom.'  For  the  remaining  form  of  Drama 
the  convenient  course  will  be,  not  to  review  it  in  a  separate  book, 
but  to  devote  Book  VI  to  the  characteristically  Biblical  Literature 
of  Prophecy :  in  this  connection  the  more  elaborate  dramatic 
compositions  of  Scripture  will  naturally  find  treatment,  while  the 
simpler  dramatic  forms  can  be  considered  elsewhere  as  they  arise. 

Before  concluding  this  chapter  it  is  convenient  here  to  consider 
certain  peculiarities  of  Hebrew  literature,  not  specially  connected 
with  divisions  of  form,  but  affecting  all  types  of  literature  alike. 

The  first  of  these  special  characteristics  may  amount  to  no  more 
than  a  curiosity  of  literature :  yet  it  is  worth  stating.  When,  in 

__     .  .  place  of  mechanical  chapters  and  verses,  the  books 

3.  Prominence  of    r 

sevenfold  struc-  of  the  Bible  are  presented  with  a  structure  deter- 
ture  mined  for  each  by  internal  evidence,  this  structure 

is  found  to  show  a  strong  attraction  to  the  number  seven.  The 
Book  of  Isaiah,  in  the  form  in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us,  falls 
naturally  into  seven  divisions  ;  the  seventh  —  the  great  Rhapsody 
of  Zion  Redeemed —  takes  the  form  of  seven  Visions,  and  the  first 
of  these  Visions  is  a  sevenfold  alternation  between  addresses  to 
Israel  and  to  the  Nations.1  Zechariah  also  has  left  a  sevenfold 
Vision ;  and  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  is  an  unfolding  of  seven 
Visions,  each  falling  into  sevenfold  subdivisions,  such  as  the  Seven 
Trumpets  or  Seven  Golden  Bowls  suggest,  while  its  prologue  is  an 
address  to  Seven  Churches,  and  its  epilogue  may  be  considered  as 
made  up  of  seven  last  words.  St.  Matthew,  the  most  Hebraic 
of  New  Testament  writers,  has  presented  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  in  seven  sections  of  similar  structure,  with  the  significant 

i  For  this  and  the  other  examples  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  various  volumes 
of  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible,  in  which  the  structure  is  fully  presented,  with 
comments. 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  111 

exception  that  the  seventh  is  itself  a  miscellany  of  seven  sepa- 
rate sayings ;  where  other  evangelists  scatter  through  various 
passages  words  of  command  to  apostles  St.  Matthew  gathers  them 
together  into  a  Sevenfold  Commission,  just  as  he  introduces  the 
parabolic  teaching  of  Jesus  with  exactly  seven  parables ;  his  de- 
nunciation of  the  Pharisees  (like  a  similar  denunciation  of  Isaiah) 
is  a  sevenfold  Woe ;  and  his  version  of  Christ's  words  on  the  end 
of  all  things  follows  that  of  the  other  evangelists  to  the  end  'of 
their  five  paragraphs,  and  then  adds  more  to  bring  the  number 
of  sections  to  seven.  Two  compositions  of  Jeremiah  stand  out  as 
specimens  of  elaborate  structure  :  his  Manifesto  divides  into  seven 
parts,  his  Doom  of  Babylon  is  a  sevenfold  denunciation  of  which 
the  central  and  climax  section  rests  upon  a  sevenfold  image.  A 
peculiarity  of  Ezekiel's  style  enables  us  to  speak  with  positiveness 
as  to  the  divisions  of  his  discourses  :  his  whole  work  is  found  to 
fall  into  seven  books,  and  each  book  (except  the  brief  central 
book)  into  seven  separate  discourses.  Seven  is  found  to  be  the 
number  of  divisions  in  Solomon's  Song,  in  Daniel,  Hosea,  Joel, 
Nahum ;  the  rhapsody  of  Amos  divides  into  three,  but  each  of 
these  has  a  clear  sevenfold  structure.  What  at  first  sight  seems 
an  exception  comes  in  reality  as  a  confirmation  of  the  principle. 
Where  the  editorship  of  the  '  wise  men  '  appears,  the  structural 
number  changes  to  five  :  the  Psatms  are  broken  by  doxologies 
into  five  books,  Proverbs  admits  of  no  other  arrangement;  the 
interpositions  of  the  author  in  Ecclesiasticus  again  present  a  five- 
fold miscellany;  internal  evidence  detects  five  essays  in  Ecclesi- 
astes,  five  discourses  in  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  five  dirges  in 
Lamentations.  Such  fivefold  disposition  suggests  itself  as  a  hall 
mark  of  editorship,  and  is  one  more  testimony  to  the  attraction 
of  specific  structural  types.  Yet  this  conscious  arrangement  in 
fives  is  not  inconsistent  with  a  natural  cleavage  into  sevens :  the 
fifth  discourse  of  Wisdom  is  a  sevenfold  illustration  of  its  theme, 
which  is  further  broken  at  one  point  by  a  sevenfold  digression. 
It  must  not  be  supposed  that  there  is  anything  arbitrary  or  artifi- 
cial in  this  recurrent  sevenfold  structure.  All  that  it  implies  is 


112        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

that  the  writers  of  the  Bible  are  deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
literary  symmetry  :  and  to  a  Hebrew  writer  symmetry  instinctively 
takes  the  form  of  the  perfect  number  seven. 

Again,  the  parallelism  which   underlies   Hebrew  rhythm   also 
reacts  upon  its  thought.     In  particular,  the  pendulum  figure,  or 
4  Pendulum         swaying  between  one  and  another  of  two  themes, 
Movement  of         usually  judgment  and  mercy,  is  a  highly  character- 
istic mode  of  thought  in  Biblical   prophecy  and 
philosophy ;  so  much  so,  that  an  interpreter  must  be  constantly  on 
the  watch  to  see  whether  his  author  has  not  given  us  alternation  of 
thought  where  we  may  have  been  expecting  progression.     To  take 
a  single  example.     A  discourse  of  Jeremiah  opens 
Jeremiah  xxx.       ^^  soun(js  of  trembling  and  fear,  a  picture  of 

Jacob  in  time  of  trouble  :  as  if  men  travailed  with 
child,  every  man  bowed  down  with  anguish,  and  all  faces  pale.  In 
that  day,  the  next  paragraph  declares,  the  yoke  of  slavery  shall 
be  broken  from  off  his  neck :  as  the  servant  of  Jehovah  he  shall 
be  brought  from  far-off  lands  of  captivity  to  quiet  and  ease  in  his 
own  land,  while  full  end  is  made  of  all  the  oppressing  nations. 
With  the  formula,  "  For  thus  saith  the  LORD,"  the  next  paragraph 
goes  back  to  the  conception  of  judgment :  Jacob's  wound  is  de- 
scribed as  incurable,  Jehovah  has  wounded  him  with  the  wound  of 
an  enemy,  there  is  no  medicine  nor  plaister,  all  the  lovers  of  Jacob 
have  forgotten  him  in  his  sore  need.  With  the  connective  '  there- 
fore '  the  discourse  passes  to  the  reverse  of  the  picture  :  health 
restored,  adversaries  devoured,  captivity  turned,  the  city  builded 
on  its  own  heap,  with  glory  and  thanksgiving  sounding  out  of  its 
palaces.  Here  it  is  clear  that  to  the  instinct  of  the  Hebrew 
writer  this  passing  backwards  and  forwards  between  opposites  pre- 
sents itself  as  a  continually  advancing  train  of  thought.  Another 
illustration  will  be  instructive. 

Nahum  i.  9-14 

What  do  ye  imagine  against  the  LORD  ?  he  will  make  a  full  end : 
affliction  shall  not  rise  up  the  second  time.  .  .  .  Though  they  be  in 
full  strength,  and  likewise  many,  even  so  shall  they  be  cut  down,  and 
he  shall  pass  away. 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  113 

Though  I  have  afflicted  thee,  I  will  afflict  thee  no  more.  And  now 
will  I  break  his  yoke  from  off  thee,  and  will  burst  thy  bonds  in  sunder. 

And  the  LORD  hath  given  commandment  concerning  thee,  that  no 
more  of  thy  name  be  sown;  out  of  the  house  of  thy  gods  will  I  cut  off 
the  graven  image  and  the  molten  image;  I  will  make  thy  grave;  for 
thou  art  vile. 

It  is  abundantly  clear  that  in  this  passage  of  Nahum  there  is  alter- 
nation between  judgment  and  mercy.  But  what  is  specially  notice- 
able is  that,  in  the  second  and  third  paragraphs,  the  thee  refers  to 
different  persons  —  to  Israel  and  the  enemy  respectively  :  there  is 
nothing  to  mark  this  distinction  except  the  pendulum  form  of  the 
thought.  I  am  anticipating  what  will  be  developed  at  full  length 
later  on,  when  I  say  that,  in  the  great  Isaiahan  rhapsody,  two  of 
its  sections  are  wholly  constituted  by  this  pendulum-like  swaying 
between  Jehovah's  judgment  on  the  nations  and  his  mercy  on  his 
own  people ;  that  a  drama  of  Hosea  maintains  almost  to  its  close 
a  sustained  monologue  of  Deity  alternating  between  righteous- 
indignation  and  tender  yearning ;  while  for  another  of  Isaiah's 
rhapsodies  the  sudden  changes  between  destruction  and  salvation 
constitute  the  whole  of  the  movement.1 

One  more  characteristic  of  Hebrew  literature  has  yet  to  be  men- 
tioned, and  one  that  is  more  important  than  all  the  rest.     It  has 
to  do  with  the  external  form  of  verse  and  prose. 
We  saw  that  Hebrew  rests  its  verse  system,  not 
upon   metre   or   rhyme,  but   upon   parallelism   of 
clauses.     But,  as  a  matter  of  universal  literature,  parallelism  is  one 

1  See  below,  pages  439,  455  ;  387 ;  416.  For  the  reader  who  may  care  to  study 
how  widely  the  pendulum  movement  obtains  in  Biblical  thought,  I  suggest  the  fol- 
lowing references  [to  the  arrangement  of  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible :  the  notes  of 
which  should  also  be  consulted] .  Song  of  Moses  in  Deuteronomy.  Psalms  Ixxviii 
and  cvi  [see  below,  pages  145,  149]  ;  Psalms  xlvii,  xcv-c,  cxxxv,  cxliv-cl.  —  Proverbs 
I.  ii,  iii,  v,  xiii ;  IV.  xlix.  Ecclesiasticus  I.  Ixxix.  Ecclesiastes  Essay  II.  Wisdom 
Discourse  IV.  Especially  yob,  sections  9,  14,  17,  18,  21,  25,  30;  with  a  variation, 
sections  37,  44.  A  triple  pendulum  in  sections  37,  46.  —  Isaiah  II.  iii.  Hosea  i,  vii. 
The  chief  examples  in  Prophecy  have  been  cited  above. 

The  Envelope  Figure  of  parallelism  also  becomes  to  a  certain  extent  a  mode  of 
thought:  compare  Isaiah  I.  ii;  Psalms  ciii-civ  [below,  page  537  note].  With  this 
may  be  associated  the  Parenthetic  Preface,  which  is  so  characteristic  of  Isaiah 
[see  page  213  of  that  volume]  and  Amos  [page  251  of  Minor  Propheti  volume]. 


114        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERA  TURE 

of  the  devices  of  prose  :  the  rhetoric  of  all  nations  includes  it. 
If  then  a  particular  language  bases  its  verse  upon  something  which 
is  also  a  property  of  prose,  it  is  an  inevitable  consequence  that  in 
that  language  prose  and  verse  will  overlap  :  and  such  is  the  case 
with  Biblical  literature.  I  do  not  of  course  mean  that  the  verse 
literature  of  the  Bible  taken  as  a  whole  could  be  confused  with  the 
Biblical  literature  of  prose.  What  could  be  further  from  prose 
than  the  Book  of  Psalms  ?  and  what  could  be  further  from  verse 
than  the  Book  of  Chronicles?  But  while  in  their  extremes  they 
are  totally  different,  yet  there  is  a  middle  region  of  Biblical  style 
in  which  verse  and  prose  meet :  a  high  parallelism  in  which  transi- 
tion can  rapidly  be  made  from  the  one  to  the  other,  or  even  the 
effects  of  the  two  can  be  combined.  It  is  this  overlapping  of 
verse  and  prose  that  I  call  the  most  important  distinguishing 
feature  of  Hebrew  literature. 

I  am  the  more  particular  upon  this  point,  because  it  is  one 
which  I  think  has  not  received  sufficient  attention,  either  in  theo- 
retical discussions  or  in  the  editing  that  seeks  to  present  Biblical 
literature  to  the  eye  in  its  true  structure.  The  combination  of 
verse  and  prose  to  which  I  am  alluding  is  not  the  fact  that,  in 
such  a  book  as  Isaiah,  some  compositions  are  found  to  be  verse 
and  some  prose.  Nor  am  I  referring  merely  to  the  literary  effect 
of  a  transition  in  the  same  composition  from  a  passage  of  prose  to 
a  passage  of  verse ;  such  transitions  belong  to  many  literatures, 
and  are  markedly  characteristic  of  Shakespeare  in  his  later  plays. 
The  union  of  verse  and  prose  can  in  Biblical  literature  be  more 
intimate  still :  what  in  another  language  we  should  have  to  call  a 
system  of  verse  —  for  example,  the  analysis  of  a  single  stanza  — 
will  in  the  Hebrew  be  found  to  combine  prose  with  verse  into  a 
common  system. 

A  clear  grasp  of  this  overlapping  of  verse  and  prose  is  neces- 
This  an  addition  sary  for  the  appreciation  of  Hebrew  literature.  To 
to  the  resources  gain  it  may  require  some  effort  of  mind  on  the 
part  of  those  who  have  formed  their  ideas  in  litera- 
tures of  a  different  kind.  The  English  reader,  for  example,  is 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  115 

accustomed  to  a  verse  founded  on  metrical  considerations  or 
rhyme  —  things  foreign  to  prose ;  when  he  hears  of  verse  ap- 
proaching prose  the  phrase  is  likely  to  suggest  to  him  weakness 
and  inefficiency.  Any  such  suggestion  becomes  inapplicable  in 
the  case  of  a  language  where  parallelism  makes  a  common  ground 
between  the  highest  poetry  and  the  highest  rhetoric.  It  is  clear, 
on  the  contrary,  that  the  literary  resources  of  Hebrew  are  increased 
by  the  feature  we  are  discussing.  Hebrew  has  the  power  pos- 
sessed by  other  languages  of  producing  literary  effect  with  changes 
from  the  one  form  of  expression  to  the  other.  But  it  has  also  a 
power  all  its  own  of  maintaining  (so  to  speak)  a  watershed  of 
high  parallelism,  from  which  it  can  dip  towards  verse  or  prose 
with  the  utmost  subtlety,  or  can  combine  in  one  the  delight  in 
freedom,  which  is  the  spirit  of  prose,  with  a  sense  of  rhythm, 
which  is  the  foundation  of  verse. 

My  first   illustration   is   from   the   prophecy   of 

r        '       ,    Amos  i.  3-ii 
Amos,  a  book  which  will  impress  the  most  casual 

reader  with  the  prominence  in  it  of  structural  beauty. 


Thus  saith  the  LORD  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Damascus, 

Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 

because  they  have  threshed  Gilead  with  threshing  instruments  of  iron  : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  into  the  house  of  Hazael, 
And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Ben-hadad. 

And  I  will  break  the  bar  of  Damascus,  and  cut  off  the  inhabitant  from 
the  valley  of  Aven,  and  him  that  holdeth  the  sceptre  from  the  house 
of  Eden  :  and  the  people  of  Syria  shall  go  into  captivity  unto  Kir,  saith 
the  LORD. 

2 

Thus  saith  the  LORD  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Gaza, 

Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 


116        FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE 

because  they  carried  away  captive  the  whole  people,  to  deliver  them 
up  to  Edom  : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  on  the  wall  of  Gaza, 
And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  thereof : 

and  I  will  cut  off  the  inhabitant  from  Ashdod,  and  him  that  holdeth 
the  sceptre  from  Ashkelon ;  and  I  will  turn  mine  hand  against  Ekron, 
and  the  remnant  of  the  Philistines  shall  perish,  saith  the  Lord  GOD. 

3 
Thus  saith  the  LORD  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Tyre, 

Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof ; 

because  they  delivered  up  the  whole  people  to  Edom,  and  remem- 
bered not  the  brotherly  covenant  : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  on  the  wall  of  Tyre, 
And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  thereof. 

4 
Thus  saith  the  LORD  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Edom, 

Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 

because  he  did  pursue  his  brother  with  the  sword,  and  did  cast  off  all 
pity,  and  his  anger  did  tear  perpetually,  and  he  kept  his  wrath  for 

ever  : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  upon  Teman, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Bozrah. 

5 
Thus  saith  the  LORD  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  the  children  of  Ammon, 

Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof ; 

because  they  have  ripped  up  the  women  with  child  of  Gilead,  that  they 
might  enlarge  their  border  : 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  117 

But  I  will  kindle  a  fire  in  the  wall  of  Kabbah, 
And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  thereof, 

with  shouting  in  the  day  of  battle,  with  a  tempest  in  the  day  of  the 
whirlwind :  and  their  king  shall  go  into  captivity,  he  and  his  princes 
together,  saith  the  LORD. 

6 

Thus  saith  the  LORD  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Moab, 

Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof ; 

because  he  burned  the  bones  of  the  king  of  Edom  into  lime  : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  upon  Moab, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Kerioth ; 

and  Moab  shall  die  with  tumult,  with  shouting,  and  with  the  sound  of 
the  trumpet ;  and  I  will  cut  off  the  judge  from  the  midst  thereof,  and 
will  slay  all  the  princes  thereof  with  him,  saith  the  LORD. 

7 
Thus  saith  the  LORD  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Judah, 

Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 

because  they  have  rejected  the  law  of  the  LORD,  and  have  not  kept 
his  statutes,  and  their  lies  have  caused  them  to  err,  after  the  which 
their  fathers  did  walk  : 

But  I  will  send  a  fire  upon  Judah, 

And  it  shall  devour  the  palaces  of  Jerusalem. 

Thus  saith  the  LORD  : 

For  three  transgressions  of  Israel, 

Yea,  for  four, 
I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  thereof; 

because  they  have  sold  the  righteous  for  silver,  and  the  needy  for  a 
pair  of  shoes  :  that  pant  after  the  dust  of  the  earth  on  the  head  of  the 
poor,  and  turn  aside  the  way  of  the  meek :  and  a  man  and  his  father 
will  go  unto  the  same  maid,  to  profane  my  holy  name  :  and  they  lay 


118        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

themselves  down  beside  every  altar  upon  clothes  taken  in  pledge,  and 
in  the  house  of  their  God  they  drink  the  wine  of  such  as  have  been 
fined.  Yet  destroyed  I  the  Amorite  before  them,  whose  height  was 
like  the  height  of  the  cedars,  and  he  was  strong  as  the  oaks ;  yet  I 
destroyed  his  fruit  from  above,  and  his  roots  from  beneath.  Also 
I  brought  you  up  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  led  you  forty  years  in 
the  wilderness,  to  possess  the  land  of  the  Amorite.  And  I  raised  up 
of  your  sons  for  prophets,  and  of  your  young  men  for  Nazirites.  Is  it 
not  even  thus,  O  ye  children  of  Israel  ?  saith  the  LORD.  But  ye  gave 
the  Nazirites  wine  to  drink ;  and  commanded  the  prophets,  saying, 
Prophesy  not. 

Behold  I  will  press  you  in  your  place, 

As  a  cart  presseth  that  is  full  of  sheaves. 

And  flight  shall  perish  from  the  swift, 

And  the  strong  shall  not  strengthen  his  force, 

Neither  shall  the  mighty  deliver  himself : 

Neither  shall  he  stand  that  handleth  the  bow ; 

And  he  that  is  swift  of  foot  shall  not  deliver  himself : 

Neither  shall  he  that  rideth  the  horse  deliver  himself : 

And  he  that  is  courageous  among  the  mighty 

Shall  flee  away  naked  in  that  day, 

Saith  the  LORD. 

If  we  examine  this  portion  of  Amos  in  the  spirit  of  the  lower 
parallelism,  we  must  admit  that  the  passages  here  printed  as  prose 
could  be  broken  up  into  verses,  most  of  them  without  straining. 
But  the  higher  parallelism  constructs  the  whole  passage  on  an 
extremely  simple  plan :  this  prophecy  against  seven  peoples  is 
made  up  of  common  formulae  expressing  ideal  transgressions  and 
ideal  dooms,  together  with  particular  descriptions  of  actual  sins 
and  actual  sufferings.  It  is  surely  in  keeping  with  such  a  general 
plan  that  the  formulae  and  ideal  portions  should  be  found  to  be  in 
verse,  and  the  particular  descriptions  in  prose.  Moreover,  when 
we  examine  the  denunciation  of  Israel,  the  final  climax  up  to  which 
all  the  rest  leads,  we  find  that  it  is  just  here  that  the  description  is 
most  difficult  to  compel  into  the  form  of  verse  :  if  this  goes  best 
as  prose  then  the  parts  correlated  with  it  should  be  prose  also. 
Finally,  if  we  look  at  the  whole  for  a  moment  simply  as  a  work  of 
art,  we  must  be  struck  with  the  superb  elasticity  of  utterance  which 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  119 

Hebrew  obtains  from  the  power  of  combining  the  two  styles  :  the 
speaker  can  at  any  moment  suspend  rhythm  in  order  to  penetrate 
with  unfettered  simplicity  of  prose  into  every  detail  of  realism, 
sure  of  being  able  to  recover  when  he  pleases  the  rhythmic  march, 
and  the  strong  tone  of  idealisation. 

It  is  possible  that  the  exposition  of  this  subject  may  be  preju- 
diced by  the  use  of  the  terms 'verse'  and  'prose.'  A  reader 
accustomed  to  associate  the  idea  of  Biblical  poetry  with  parallelism 
of  clauses  may  be  unwilling  to  class  as  prose  passages  in  which 
parallelism  obtains  almost,  if  not  quite,  to  the  same  extent  as  in 
other  passages  presented  in  the  form  of  verse.  I  admit  at  once 
that  the  words  '  verse '  and  '  prose '  are  used  in  this  connection 
only  from  the  inability  of  one  language  to  express  fully  the  ideas 
of  another.  In  reality  neither  style  is  '  prose,'  and  neither  '  verse ' : 
the  two  approach  one  another  with  a  difference  that  would  be 
more  nearly  represented  by  that  between  recitative  and  rhythm  in 
music,  or  blank  verse  and  lyrics  in  Greek  tragedy.  What  I  am 
concerned  to  insist  upon  is  the  practical  consideration,  that  the 
conventional  forms  of  prose  and  verse  are  the  best  modes  of  con- 
veying to  the  eye  a  recitative  and  a  more  rhythmic  style,  the  tran- 
sitions between  which  in  Biblical  writings  are  a  constant  source  of 
literary  effect.  At  the  same  time  it  is  well  to  point  out  that 
parallelism  of  clauses  taken  by  itself  is  an  insufficient  criterion  of 
verse.  Such  parallelism  could  hardly  be  carried  further  than  in 
some  passages  of  Moses'  speeches  in  Deuteronomy : 

For  the  LORD  thy  God  bringeth  thee  into  a  good  land : 

A  land  of  brooks  of  water, 

Of  fountains  and  depths, 

Springing  forth  in  valleys  and  hills; 

A  land  of  wheat  and  barley, 

And  vines,  and  fig  trees,  and  pomegranates; 

A  land  of  oil  olives  and  honey; 

A  land  wherein  thou  shalt  eat  bread  without  scarceness, 

Thou  shalt  not  lack  anything  in  it; 

A  land  whose  stones  are  iron, 

And  out  of  whose  hills  thou  mayest  dig  brass. 


120        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

The  clauses  considered  by  themselves  fully  admit  this  mode  of 
presentation ;  yet  no  one  would  so  present  the  passage,  because 
the  general  drift  and  spirit  of  the  whole  makes  it  clear  that  these 
sentences  constitute  not  poetry  but  oratory.  So  with  regard  to 
citations  made  in  the  present  connection,  it  is  necessary,  besides 
examining  the  individual  clauses,  to  study  the  extract  as  a  whole, 
and  the  way  its  different  parts  hang  together ;  when  this  is  done 
it  will  often  appear  that  a  passage,  which  in  itself  would  make 
good  verse,  will  in  its  relation  to  the  whole  be  better  represented 
to  the  eye  and  ear  as  the  recitative  style  of  which  prose  form  is 
the  symbol. 

My  second  illustration  is  from  the  Watchman  prophecies  of 
Isaiah.  Here  the  rhythmic  passages  convey  bursts  of  vision : 
convulsions  of  nature,  or  the  Divine  voice  heard  cheering  on  his 
hosts  to  the  overthrow  of  Babylon.  The  other  style,  in  the  inter- 
vals of  vision,  gives  the  prophet's  emotions  at  what  he  sees,  ex- 
plains how  he  comes  to  have  the  vision,  apostrophises  the  people 
whose  fall  he  is  foreseeing. 

As  whirlwinds  in  the  South  sweep  through, 

It  cometh  from  the  wilderness, 
From  a  terrible  land ! 

A  grievous  vision  is  declared  unto  me;  the  treacherous  dealer  dealeth 
treacherously,  and  the  spoiler  spoileth. 

"  Go  up,  O  Elam ; 

Besiege,  O  Media; 
All  the  sighing  thereof  will  I  make  to  cease." 

Therefore  are  my  loins  filled  with  anguish;  pains  have  taken  hold 
upon  me,  as  the  pangs  of  a  woman  in  travail :  I  am  pained  so  that  I 
cannot  hear,  I  am  dismayed  so  that  I  cannot  see.  My  heart  panteth, 
horror  hath  affrighted  me :  the  twilight  that  I  desired  hath  been 
turned  into  trembling  unto  me. 


"  They  prepare  the  table, 
They  spread  the  carpets, 
They  eat,  they  drink : 
Rise  up,  ye  princes,  anoint  the  shield.' 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  121 

For  thus  hath  the  LORD  said  unto  me,  Go,  set  a  watchman;  let  him 
declare  what  he  seeth :  and  when  he  seeth  a  troop,  horsemen  in 
pairs,  a  troop  of  asses,  a  troop  of  camels,  he  shall  hearken  diligently 
with  much  heed.  And  he  cried  as  a  lion  : 

0  Lord, 

1  stand  continually  upon  the  watch-tower  in  the  day-time, 

And  am  set  in  my  ward  whole  nights : 
And,  behold,  here  cometh  a  troop  of  men, 
Horsemen  in  pairs. 

And  He  answered  and  said, 

"  Babylon  is  fallen, 
Is  fallen; 

And  all  the  graven  images  of  her  gods  are  broken  unto  the 
ground." 

O  thou  my  threshing,  and  the  corn  of  my  floor :  that  which  I  have  heard 
from  the  LORD  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel,  have  I  declared  unto  you. 

In  this  passage  two  trains  of  thought,  objective  and  subjective, 
vision  and  reflection  on  the  vision,  distinct  yet  bearing  one  upon 
the  other,  are  differentiated  by  a  subtle  difference  of  rhythmic 
expression,  such  as  allows  the  two  to  move  on  side  by  side  and 
alternate,  without  either  being  confused  with  the  other.1 

It  must  be  admitted  that  a  means  of  conventionally  distinguish- 
ing the  two  styles  to  the  eye  will  be  an  important  aid  to  inter- 
pretation. I  should  like  to  enforce  this  point  by 

Recognition  of 
yet  another  illustration.      The  passage  is  one  of   the  compound 

the  Songs  of  Zion  in  the  great  Isaiahan  rhapsody  :   style  esssential 

,       ,      ,      .  „.  ,  IT,  to  interpretation 

in  the  rhythmic  passages  Zion  speaks  and  addresses 

the  nations,  the  recitative  passages  which  interrupt  make  God 
the  speaker,  declaring  (as  a  basis  for  the  song)  how  He  has  thus 
constituted  Zion  a  Witness  to  the  nations. 

'  Ho,  every  one  that  thirsteth,  come  ye  to  the  waters, 
'And  he  that  hath  no  money,  come  ye,  buy  and  eat; 

1  In  this  and  the  next  illustration  the  reader  should  read  the  prose  passages 
by  themselves,  and  note  their  connectedness  apart  from  the  interrupting  verse 
passages. 


122         FfRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

'  Yea,  come,  buy  wine  and  milk, 

'  Without  money  and  without  price. 

'  Wherefore  do  ye  spend  money  for  that  which  is  not  bread? 

'  And  your  labour  for  that  which  satisfieth  not  ? 
'  Hearken  diligently  unto  me,  and  eat  ye  that  which  is  good, 

'  And  let  your  soul  delight  itself  in  fatness. 

'  Incline  your  ear,  and  come  unto  me ; 

'  Hear,  and  your  soul  shall  live : 
'  And  I  will  make  an  everlasting  covenant  with  you, 

'  Even  the  sure  mercies  of  David.' 

Behold,  I  have  given  him  for  a  witness  to  the  peoples,  and  a  leadet 
and  commander  to  the  peoples.  Behold,  thou  shalt  call  a  nation  that 
thou  knowest  not,  and  a  nation  that  knew  not  thee  shall  run  unto  thee, 
because  of  the  LORD  thy  God,  and  for  the  Holy  One  of  Israel;  for  he 
hath  glorified  thee. 

'  Seek  ye  the  LORD  while  he  may  be  found, 

'  Call  ye  upon  him  while  he  is  near : 
'  Let  the  wicked  forsake  his  way, 

'  And  the  unrighteous  man  his  thoughts; 

'  And  let  him  return  unto  the  LORD, 

'  And  he  will  have  mercy  upon  him ; 
'  And  to  our  God, 

'  For  he  will  abundantly  pardon.' 

For  my  thoughts  are  not  your  thoughts,  neither  are  your  ways  my 
ways,  saith  the  LORD.  For  as  the  heavens  are  higher  than  the  earth, 
so  are  my  ways  higher  than  your  ways,  and  my  thoughts  than  your 
thoughts.  For  as  the  rain  cometh  down  and  the  snow  from  heaven, 
and  returneth  not  thither,  but  watereth  the  earth,  and  maketh  it  bring 
forth  and  bud,  and  giveth  seed  to  the  sower  and  bread  to  the  eater;  so 
shall  my  word  be  that  goeth  forth  out  of  my  mouth :  it  shall  not  return 
unto  me  void,  but  it  shall  accomplish  that  which  I  please,  and  it  shall 
prosper  in  the  thing  whereto  I  sent  it. 

'  For  ye  shall  go  out  with  joy, 

'And  be  led  forth  with  peace; 
'  The  mountains  and  the  hills  shall  break  forth  before  you  into  singing, 

'  And  all  the  trees  of  the  field  shall  clap  their  hands. 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  125 

'  Instead  of  the  thorn  shall  come  up  the  fir  tree, 

'  And  instead  of  the  brier  shall  come  up  the  myrtle  tree : 

'  And  it  shall  be  to  the  LORD  for  a  name, 

'  For  an  everlasting  sign  that  shall  not  be  cut  off.' 

Here,  then,  the  two  forms  differentiate  two  speakers.  The  verse 
passages,  read  by  themselves,  make  a  complete  hymn,  in  which 
Zion  calls  to  the  nations,  exercising  her  new  prerogative  of  admit- 
ting them  to  the  covenant  of  David  :  not  only  does  the  hymn  as 
a  whole  suggest  this  interpretation,  but  in  particular,  the  phrase 
of  the  fifth  stanza, '  And  to  our  God,'  is  decisive  as  to  the  speaker. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  recitative  passages  connect  together  as  the 
Divine  speech  which  proclaims  Zion  God's  witness.  Even  details 
of  exegesis  are  affected  by  this  treatment  of  the  passage.  It  is 
now  easy  to  see  how  the  opening  of  the  last  stanza  but  one,  '  For 
ye  shall  go  out  with  joy,'  connects  on  to  the  preceding  verse  pas- 
sage, which  invited  the  nations  to  return.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  sentence  'For  my  thoughts  are  not  your  thoughts,'  \hefor  unites 
what  follows,  not  to  the  words  immediately  preceding,  but  to  the 
last  prose  passage  ;  the  thought  that  God's  mysterious  work  is  as 
sure  as  the  operations  of  nature  emphasizes,  not  the  promise  of 
pardon  to  the  nations,  but  the  mysterious  elevation  of  afflicted  Zion 
to  the  glorious  position  of  a  witness  to  the  peoples  of  the  world.1 

The  citation  just  made  from  Isaiah  is  a  type  of  a  class  —  and  a 
very  large  class  —  of  passages  in  the  Bible.  In  all  of  them  we 
have  a  Divine  speech,  continuous  in  thought,  interrupted  by 
rhythmic  passages  not  spoken  by  Deity,  but  to  be  understood  as 
impersonal  lyrics.  From  the  frequent  recurrence  of  this  structure 

in  a  particular  kind  of  prophecy,  hereafter  to  be 

The  Doom  form 
described,  it  may  be  called  the  '  Doom  form.'     I 

believe  that  a  clear  grasp  of  this,  to  us  unfamiliar,  structure  is  so 
important  for  Biblical  interpretation  that  I  feel  inclined  to  let  the 
reader  at  this  point  watch  it  upon  a  more  extended  scale.  I  pro- 

1  For  a  similar  case  compare  Jeremiah's  Doom  of  Babylon  [pages  195-211  in 
the  Modern  Reader's  Bible] :  while  in  the  prose  passages  the  '  I '  is  the  Divine 
Being,  at  one  point  of  the  verse  the  '  me  '  is  clearly  Zion  or  Jerusalem  [page  207]. 


i24        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

ceed  to  cite  the  whole  Book  of  Zephaniah,  the  structure  of  which 
is  entirely  in  the  Doom  form.  If  what  is  here  presented  as  prose 
be  read  by  itself  it  will  be  found  to  make  a  continuous  denuncia- 
tion put  into  the  mouth  of  Deity ;  this  denunciation  is  at  intervals 
interrupted  by  snatches  of  verse,  not  words  of  God,  but  lyric  com- 
ments upon  the  Divine  word  at  emphatic  points. 

THE   WORD   OF  THE  LORD 

which  came  unto 

ZEPHANIAH 

the  son  of  Cushi,  the  son  of  Gedaliah, 

the  son  of  Amariah,  the  son  of  Hezekiah, 

in  the  days  of  Josiah  the  son  of  Amon, 

king  of  Judah. 

I  will  utterly  consume  all  things  from  off  the  face  of  the  ground,  saith 
the  LORD.  I  will  consume  man  and  beast ;  I  will  consume  the  fowls 
of  the  heaven,  and  the  fishes  of  the  sea,  and  the  stumbling-blocks  with 
the  wicked;  and  I  will  cut  off  man  from  off  the  face  of  the  ground, 
saith  the  LORD.  And  I  will  stretch  out  mine  hand  upon  Judah,  and 
upon  all  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem;  and  I  will  cut  off  the  remnant 
of  Baal  from  this  place,  and  the  name  of  the  Chemarim  with  the 
priests;  and  them  that  worship  the  host  of  heaven  upon  the  house- 
tops; and  them  that  worship,  which  swear  to  the  LORD  and  swear  by 
Malcam;  and  them  that  are  turned  back  from  following  the  LORD; 
and  those  that  have  not  sought  the  LORD,  nor  inquired  after  him. 

Hold  thy  peace  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord  GOD  : 

For  the  Day  of  the  LORD  is  at  hand : 
For  the  LORD  hath  prepared  a  sacrifice, 

He  hath  sanctified  his  guests ! 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  day  of  the  LORD'S  sacrifice,  that  I  will 
punish  the  princes,  and  the  king's  sons,  and  all  such  as  are  clothed 
with  foreign  apparel.  And  in  that  day  I  will  punish  all  those  that  leap 
over  the  threshold,  which  fill  their  master's  house  with  violence  and 
deceit.  And  in  that  day,  saith  the  LORD,  there  shall  be  the  noise  of 
a  cry  from  the  fish  gate,  and  an  howling  from  the  second  quarter,  and 
a  great  crashing  from  the  hills. 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  125 

Howl,  ye  inhabitants  of  The  Mortar, 

For  all  the  merchant  people  are  undone : 

All  they  that  were  laden  with  silver  are  cut  off. 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  at  that  time,  that  I  will  search  Jerusalem  with 
candles;  and  I  will  punish  the  men  that  are  settled  on  their  lees,  that 
say  in  their  heart,  The  LORD  will  not  do  good,  neither  will  he  do  evil. 
And  their  wealth  shall  become  a  spoil,  and  their  houses  a  desolation; 
yea,  they  shall  build  houses,  but  shall  not  inhabit  them;  and  they  shall 
plant  vineyards,  but  shall  not  drink  the  wine  thereof. 

The  great  Day  of  the  LORD  is  near : 

It  is  near  and  hasteth  greatly ! 
Even  the  voice  of  the  Day  of  the  LORD; 

The  mighty  man  crieth  there  bitterly ! 

That  Day  is  a  day  of  wrath, 

A  day  of  trouble  and  distress, 
A  day  of  wasteness  and  desolation, 

A  day  of  darkness  and  gloominess, 

A  day  of  clouds  and  thick  darkness, 

A  day  of  the  trumpet  and  alarm 
Against  the  fenced  cities, 

And  against  the  high  battlements ! 

And  I  will  bring  distress  upon  men,  that  they  shall  walk  like  blind 
men,  because  they  have  sinned  against  the  LORD  :  and  their  blood 
shall  be  poured  out  as  dust,  and  their  flesh  as  dung.  Neither  their 
silver  nor  their  gold  shall  be  able  to  deliver  them  in  the  day  of  the 
LORD'S  wrath;  but  the  whole  land  shall  be  devoured  by  the  fire  of  his 
jealousy :  for  he  shall  make  an  end,  yea,  a  terrible  end,  of  all  them 
that  dwell  in  the  land. 

Gather  yourselves  together,  yea,  gather  together, 
O  nation  that  hath  no  shame; 

Before  the  decree  bring  forth, 

Before  the  day  pass  as  the  chaff, 

Before  the  fierce  anger  of  the  LORD  come  upon  you, 

Before  the  Day  of  the  LORD'S  Anger  come  upon  you. 

Seek  ye  the  LORD,  all  ye  meek  of  the  earth, 
Which  have  wrought  his  judgement; 


126        FIRST  PRINCIPLES   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE 

Seek  righteousness, 

Seek  meekness : 

It  may  be  ye  shall  be  hid 

In  the  Day  of  the  LORD'S  Anger. 

For  Gaza  shall  be  forsaken,  and  Ashkelon  a  desolation :  they  shall  drive 
out  Ashdod  at  the  noonday,  and  Ekron  shall  be  rooted  up. 

Woe  unto  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea  coast, 
The  nation  of  the  Cherethites ! 

The  word  of  the  LORD  is  against  you,  O  Canaan,  the  land  of  the 
Philistines;  I  will  destroy  thee  that  there  shall  be  no  inhabitant.  And 
the  sea  coast  shall  be  pastures,  with  cottages  for  shepherds  and  folds 
for  flocks.  And  the  coast  shall  be  for  the  remnant  of  the  house  of 
Judah;  they  shall  feed  their  flocks  thereupon :  in  the  houses  of  Ashke- 
lon shall  they  lie  down  in  the  evening;  for  the  LORD  their  God  shall 
visit  them,  and  bring  again  their  captivity.  I  have  heard  the  reproach 
of  Moab,  and  the  revilings  of  the  children  of  Ammon,  wherewith  they 
have  reproached  my  people,  and  magnified  themselves  against  their 
border.  Therefore  as  I  live,  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel, 
Surely  Moab  shall  be  as  Sodom,  and  the  children  of  Ammon  as  Gomor- 
rah, a  possession  of  nettles,  and  saltpits,  and  a  perpetual  desolation : 
the  residue  of  my  people  shall  spoil  them,  and  the  remnant  of  my 
nation  shall  inherit  them.  This  shall  they  have  for  their  pride,  because 
they  have  reproached  and  magnified  themselves  against  the  people  of 
the  LORD  of  hosts.  The  LORD  will  be  terrible  unto  them :  for  he  will 
famish  all  the  gods  of  the  earth;  and  men  shall  worship  him,  every  one 
from  his  place,  even  all  the  isles  of  the  nations.  Ye  Ethiopians  also, 
ye  shall  be  slain  by  my  sword.  And  he  will  stretch  out  his  hand 
against  the  north,  and  destroy  Assyria;  and  will  make  Nineveh  a 
desolation,  and  dry  like  the  wilderness.  And  herds  shall  lie  down  in 
the  midst  of  her,  all  the  beasts  of  the  nations:  both  the  pelican  and 
the  porcupine  shall  lodge  in  the  chapiters  thereof:  their  voice  shall 
sing  in  the  windows;  desolation  shall  be  in  the  thresholds :  for  he  hath 
laid  bare  the  cedar  work. 

This  is  the  joyous  city, 
That  dwelt  carelessly, 
That  said  in  her  heart,  I  am, 
And  there  is  none  else  beside  me : 

How  is  she  become  a  desolation, 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  127 

A  place  for  beasts  to  lie  down  in ! 
Every  one  that  passeth  by  her  shall  hiss, 
And  wag  his  hand. 

Woe  to  her  that  is  rebellious  and  polluted, 
To  the  oppressing  city ! 

She  obeyed  not  the  voice; 

She  received  not  correction; 

She  trusted  not  in  the  LORD; 

She  drew  not  near  to  her  God. 

Her  princes  in  the  midst  of  her  are  roaring  lions; 

Her  judges  are  evening  wolves; 

They  leave  nothing  till  the  morrow. 

Her  prophets  are  light  and  treacherous  persons : 

Her  priests  have  profaned  the  sanctuary, 

They  have  done  violence  to  the  law. 
The  LORD  in  the  midst  of  her  is  righteous; 
He  will  not  do  iniquity; 

Every  morning  doth  he  bring  his  judgement  to  light. 
He  faileth  not; 
But  the  unjust  knoweth  no  shame. 

I  have  cut  off  nations,  their  battlements  are  desolate;  I  have  made 
their  streets  waste,  that  none  passeth  by;  their  cities  are  destroyed, 
so  that  there  is  no  man,  that  there  is  none  inhabitant.  I  said,  Surely 
thou  wilt  fear  me,  thou  wilt  receive  correction;  so  her  dwelling  should 
not  be  cut  off,  according  to  all  that  I  have  appointed  concerning  her : 
but  they  rose  early  and  corrupted  all  their  doings.  Therefore  wait  ye 
for  me,  saith  the  LORD,  until  the  day  that  I  rise  up  to  the  prey :  for 
my  determination  is  to  gather  the  nations,  that  I  may  assemble  the 
kingdoms,  to  pour  upon  them  mine  indignation,  even  all  my  fierce 
anger ;  for  all  the  earth  shall  be  devoured  with  the  fire  of  my  jealousy. 
For  then  will  I  turn  to  the  peoples  a  pure  language,  that  they  may 
all  call  upon  the  name  of  the  LORD,  to  serve  him  with  one  consent. 
From  beyond  the  rivers  of  Ethiopia  my  suppliants,  even  the  daughter 
of  my  dispersed,  shall  bring  mine  offering.  In  that  day  shalt  thou  not 
be  ashamed  for  all  thy  doings,  wherein  thou  hast  transgressed  against 
me :  for  then  I  will  take  away  out  of  the  midst  of  thee  thy  proudly 
exulting  ones,  and  thou  shalt  no  more  be  haughty  in  my  holy  mountain. 
But  I  will  leave  in  the  midst  of  thee  an  afflicted  and  poor  people,  and 
they  shall  trust  in  the  name  of  the  LORD.  The  remnant  of  Israel  shall 
not  do  iniquity,  nor  speak  lies;  neither  shall  a  deceitful  tongue  be 


128        FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERA  TURE 

found  in  their  mouth :  for  they  shall  feed  and  lie  down,  and  none  shall 
make  them  afraid. 

Sing,  O  daughter  of  Zion;  shout,  O  Israel; 

Be  glad  and  rejoice  with  all  the  heart,  O  daughter  of  Jerusalem. 

The  LORD  hath  taken  away  thy  judgements, 

He  hath  cast  out  thine  enemy  : 

The  king  of  Israel,  even  the  LORD,  is  in  the  midst  of  thee : 

Thou  shalt  not  fear  evil  any  more. 

In  that  day  it  shall  be  said  to  Jerusalem,  Fear  thou  not : 
O  Zion,  let  not  thine  hands  be  slack. 

The  LORD  thy  God  is  in  the  midst  of  thee, 

A  mighty  one  who  will  save : 

He  will  rejoice  over  thee  with  joy,  he  will  rest  in  his  love, 

He  will  joy  over  thee  with  singing. 

I  will  gather  them  that  sorrow  for  the  solemn  assembly,  who  were  of 
thee :  to  whom  the  burden  upon  her  was  a  reproach.  Behold,  at  that 
time  I  will  deal  with  all  them  that  afflict  thee :  and  I  will  save  her  that 
halteth,  and  gather  her  that  was  driven  away;  and  I  will  make  them 
a  praise  and  a  name,  whose  shame  hath  been  in  all  the  earth.  At  that 
time  will  I  bring  you  in,  and  at  that  time  will  I  gather  you :  for  I  will 
make  you  a  name  and  a  praise  among  all  the  peoples  of  the  earth, 
when  I  bring  again  your  captivity  before  your  eyes,  saith  the  LORD.1 

This  overlapping  of  verse  and  prose  may  then  be  regarded  as 
the  foremost  of  the  characteristics  that  distinguish  Hebrew  among 
the  great  literatures  of  the  world.  As  we  proceed  with  our  survey 
of  Scripture  we  shall  meet  this  phenomenon  at  every  step.  It 
will  make  easy  to  understand  the  spontaneous  effusions  of  poetry 
in  blessings  and  curses  in  the  midst  of  prose  narrative ;  it  will  ex- 
plain how,  in  Deuteronomy,  only  a  slight  step  is  necessary  between 

1  For  the  reader  who  may  desire  to  study  this  compound  style,  I  suggest  the 
following  references  [to  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible].  For  the  Doom  form  proper : 
Isaiah  III;  IV.  i,  iii,  iv;  Zion  Redeemed  I.  Obadiah ;  Nahum  (sections  3,  5); 
Zephaniah ;  The  King  of  Peace  [Minor  Prophets  volume,  page  205] .  Jeremiah 
II.  v;  VI.  iv,  v,  vi;  X.  ii,  iv,  v,  vi,  vii,  x.  For  the  same  form,  though 

not  in  Dooms :  Zion  Redeemed  Prelude ;  1 1 1 ;  I V ;  V.  Other  passages : 

Isaiah  I.  iii,  iv,  v ;  II.  i,  iv ;  IV.  vii,  x,  xii,  xiii ;  V.  iii,  vii.    Jeremiah  X.  viii.    Ezekiel 
I.  vi;  V.  ii,  vi;  VI.  vii.    Joel  ii.     Micah  i.    Habakkuh  ii. 


LITERARY  FORMS  IN  SCRIPTURE  129 

oratory  and  song.  In  light  of  this  it  will  no  longer  appear  strange 
that  the  Bible  should  not  contain  verse  epics  like  those  of  other 
nations :  its  stories  are  simply  attracted  to  the  prose  form  of  the 
history  they  are  used  to  illustrate.  We  shall  have  to  see  how  the 
proverb  couplet  is  a  meeting  point  for  a  Wisdom  literature  in  verse 
and  prose,  the  respective  forms  of  which  exactly  correspond  each 
to  each.  In  Ecclesiastes  we  shall  see  how  a  theory  can  be 
stated  in  the  form  of  a  sonnet,  and  discussed  in  philosophic 
prose;  how  again  a  prose  exhortation  can  find  a  climax  in  the 
most  poetic  of  sonnets.  For  what  affects  the  two  styles  we  call 
verse  and  prose  will  also  react  upon  the  varied  forms  of  poetry 
and  prose  with  which  those  styles  are  usually  allied  :  hence  it  need 
not  be  surprising  that  in  Job,  as  we  have  already  seen,  all  the  six 
main  forms  of  literature  are  illustrated  within  a  single  book ;  in  the 
prophetic  rhapsody,  as  we  are  to  see  later,  all  six  can  be  fused 
together  into  one.  Other  languages  may  surpass  Hebrew  as  vehi- 
cles for  precision  of  thought.  But  the  harmonisation  of  recitative 
and  rhythm,  on  the  common  ground  of  high  parallelism,  has  pro- 
vided for  the  Bible  the  most  elastic  medium  of  expression  which 
the  world's  literatures  contain. 


BOOK  SECOND 

LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

V.  THE  BIBLICAL  ODE 133 

VI.  SONGS,  ELEGIES,  AND  MEDITATIONS      .        .        .        .158 

VII.  MONODIES,  DRAMATIC  LYRICS,  AND  RITUAL  PSALMS    .    181 

VIII.  LYRIC  IDYL:  'SOLOMON'S  SONG' 207 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    BIBLICAL    ODE 

THE  Ode  cannot  be  exactly  denned.  Etymologically  the  word 
is  equivalent  to  '  song ' ;  usage  seems  to  have  given  it  the  sense 

of  song  par  excellence :  the  lyric  poetry  that  is  furthest 

**\  3  The  Ode 

removed  from  the  ordinary  speech,  and  nearest  to  pure 

music.  If  'flight'  be  the  regular  image  for  the  movement  of 
lyric  poetry,  then  the  Ode  is  the  song  that  can  soar  highest  and 
remain  longest  on  the  wing.  Speaking  generally,  we  may  say  that 
it  is  distinguished  from  other  lyrics  by  greater  elaboration,  and 
(so  to  speak)  structural  consciousness.  Such  a  literary  form  will 
be  discussed  best  by  particular  examples,  and  a  commentary 
upon  the  Odes  of  the  Bible  will  introduce  us  to  lyric  modes  of 
movement  in  general. 

It  is  natural  to  commence  with  Deborah's  Song.     This  is  the 
most  elaborate  of  Biblical  odes,  and  it  exercised  considerable 
influence  upon  succeeding  poetry.     There  is  an- 
other circumstance   which   makes    it    particularly  judges v8^ 
valuable  to  the  literary  student.     It  is  a  narrative 
poem,  and  the  story  it  narrates  is  in  the  previous  chapter  of 
Judges  given  in  the  form  of  history.     A  careful  comparison  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  chapters  of  that  book  will  enable  us  to  study 
the  differences  between  lyric  narrative  and  narrative  as  it  appears 
in  history. 

Few  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  are  more  familiar,  or  more 
frequently  discussed,  than  the  incidents  that  enter  into  Deborah's 
Song.  Yet  I  think  there  are  important  elements  in  the  story 


134  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

which  are  by  no  means  generally  understood.  The  first  point  that 
I  will  put  amounts  to  no  more  than  a  conjecture.  The  history 
opens  by  saying  that  Israel  fell  under  the  dominion 

Of  J3bin  kinS  °f  Canaan>  and  that  he  "mightily 
oppressed "  them  for  twenty  years.  Though  the 
Book  of  Judges  is  full  of  similar  subjugations  of  Israel,  that  par- 
ticular phrase  is  nowhere  else  used ;  the  suggestion  is  that  there 
was  something  different  in  kind  between  the  tyranny  of  Jabin  and 
Sisera  and  other  tyrannies.  May  it  be  that  this  oppression  was  of 
an  indescribable  nature,  affecting  person  as  well  as  property, — 
such  wanton  violence  as  appears  in  a  later  chapter  of  Judges  to 

have  brought  all  Israel  in  arms  against  a  city  of  Ben- 
Chapter  XX 

jamin?     If  this  conjecture  were  adopted,  it  would 

give  significance  to  the  striking  phrase  used  by  the  song  to 
describe  the  misery  of  the  oppression,  —  that  "  the  highways  were 
unoccupied  and  the  travellers  walked  through  byways."  It  would 
explain  how  it  was  that  the  tyranny  was  borne  without  resistance 
until  "  a  mother  in  Israel  "  roused  the  people  against  it.  It  would 
further  enable  us  to  understand  how  a  prophetess  could  exult  in 
the  strange  decree  of  Providence  by  which  the  instrument  of  a 
cruel  and  lustful  tyranny  met  his  doom  at  the  hands  of  a  woman. 

My  next  point  is  a  matter  of  certainty.  It  is  the  relation  to 
the  story  of  Heber  the  Kenite,  the  husband  of  Jael.  The  Kenites 
were  a  tribe  who  had  joined  Israel  in  the  wilderness ;  they  had 
become  a  part  of  the  chosen  nation  in  all  respects  except  one,  — 
that  they  still  retained  their  life  in  tents,  when  the  Israelites  had 
settled  down  in  villages  and  towns.  But  we  are  told  in  one  verse 
of  the  narrative  that  there  was  peace  between  the  oppress- 

iv.  17 

ing  tyrant  and  the  house  of  Heber  the  Kenite ;  another 

verse  tells  us  how  Heber  had  separated  himself  from  the  other 

Kenites,  and   "pitched   his   tent  as  far  as  the  oak   in 

Zaanannim,  which  is  by  Kedesh,"  that  is,  close  to  the 

muster  ground  of  Barak ;  and  the  verse  that  follows  says,  "And  they 

told  Sisera  that  Barak  the  son  of  Abinoam  was  gone  up 

to  mount  Tabor."    Though  the  phrasing  in  this  last  verse 


THE  BIBLICAL   ODE  135 

is  general,  yet  when  the  three  verses  are  taken  together  the  signifi- 
cance is  clear  enough  :  that  Heber  the  Kenite  was  a  spy  in  the 
pay  of  Jabin  and  Sisera,  and  that  he  had  shifted  his  tent  for  no 
reason  but  to  keep  a  watch  upon  the  movements  of  Israel,  and 
report  them  to  the  enemy.  But  there  would  seem  to  have  been 
one  in  his  tent  who  had  a  heart  to  feel  with  the  mothers  of  Israel ; 
as  a  sheikh's  wife  Jael  may  have  been  unable  to  hinder  her  hus- 
band's plans,  but  when  the  turn  of  events  had  come,  and  Sisera 
approached  her  as  a  fugitive,  there  was  a  sudden  opportunity 
before  her  to  strike  a  blow  on  the  side  which  she  had  never 
deserted.  Of  course  her  act  remains  a  treacherous  violation  of 
hospitality.  But  it  makes  some  difference  to  our  estimate  of  her 
that  it  was  treachery  done  to  redress  her  husband's  treachery  on 
the  opposite  side. 

It  is  worth  while,  again,  to  make  clear  the  military  situation. 
Jabin's  power  lay  in  his  "  nine  hundred  chariots  of  iron  "  :  against 
such  a  force  the  half  armed  infantry  of  Israel  would  be  almost 
useless.  Their  only  hope  lay  in  a  surprise ;  and  Barak's  plan 
seems  to  have  been  to  arrange  a  quiet  muster  of  separate  tribes 
moving  towards  the  high  ground  by  Kedesh,  from  which  they 
might  watch  for  a  favourable  moment  and  make  a  rapid  descent. 
This  was  frustrated  by  the  treachery  of  Heber,  and  Sisera,  fore- 
warned, poured  his  full  forces  on  to  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  which 
afforded  the  best  possible  ground  for  the  evolutions  of  chariots. 
Humanly  speaking,  there  was  no  hope  for  the  Israelites.  What 
changed  the  situation  we  learn  from  a  phrase  of  the  song :  "  the 
stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera."  In  other  words, 
a  thunderstorm  and  its  torrents  of  rain  produced  the  effect  often 
described  by  travellers  in  Palestine  :  in  an  astonishingly  brief 
period  the  river  Kishon  would  overflow,  and  the  whole  plain  be 
flooded  :  in  the  verses  of  the  song  we  can  almost  hear 

V.  32 

the  horses  plunging  about  in  the  morass.     This  made  it 
possible  for  the  whole  of  the  formidable  army  to  be  exterminated 
in  a   single   day.      This   further   explains   the  bitterness   of  the 
curse  denounced  on  Meroz  —  some  city  of  Israel  on  the  line  of 


136  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

the  enemy's  retreat :  where  everything  depended  on  destroying 
the  army  before  they  could  extricate  themselves  from  the  mud, 
even  hesitation  might  amount  to  the  blackest  treachery. 

With  the  incident  thus  fully  before  us  we  are  in  a  position  to 
make  our  comparison  of  the  two  narratives.  In  the  history  of 
the  fourth  chapter,  as  we  might  expect,  we  find 
Lyric'warrative  tne  narrative  connected  and  continuous.  It  com- 
mences by  describing  the  oppression ;  it  proceeds 
to  tell  how  Deborah  arose  and  called  for  resistance ;  it  gives  with 
some  minuteness  the  negotiations  by  which  Deborah  secured  Barak 
for  her  commander-in-chief.  We  next  hear  of  the  muster  at  Kedesh; 
the  treachery  of  Heber  is  then  implied  rather  than  directly  stated. 
The  battle  follows,  and  the  utter  rout ;  then  the  history  becomes 
detailed  as  it  deals  with  the  remarkable  circumstance  of  the  assas- 
sination of  Sisera  by  Jael. 

When  we  turn  to  the  song,  we  seem  to  find  this  connectedness 

and  continuity  of  narrative  avoided,  and  the  story  touched  only  in 

selected  parts.     I  am  tempted  to  convey  the  differ- 

CMLcentration  ence  ^v  an  iUustrati°n-  A  man  watches  some 
architectural  mass,  like  the  Church  of  St.  Mark  at 
Venice,  in  the  changing  light  of  evening.  As  long  as  full  daylight 
is  in  the  sky  he  sees  clearly  the  vivid  colouring,  and  the  architec- 
tural details,  and  the  numerous  gilded  points  and  pinnacles  with 
which  the  whole  is  crowned.  With  the  waning  light  he  loses  the 
colour;  then  the  carving  and  relief  sinks  into  a  uniform  surface. 
He  seems  to  be  losing  the  whole,  until  a  point  is  reached  when 
there  is  just  enough  light  left  to  catch  the  gilded  crosses  and  pin- 
nacles :  then  instead  of  being  lost  the  whole  edifice  has  come  back 
to  him  in  an  outline  of  luminous  points.  This  seems  to  me  to 
afford  an  analogue  for  lyric  narrative.  The  daylight  view,  in  which 
the  whole  surface  is  visible  without  break,  represents  the  continuity 
of  the  history ;  we  lose  that  in  the  song,  but  there  the  story  comes 
to  us  in  a  selection  of  points  every  one  of  which  is  luminous. 
First,  the  oppression  is  painted  by  two  picturesque  strokes :  the 
deserted  highways,  the  vain  search  for  weapons.  All  the  negotia- 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  137 

tions  between  Deborah  and  Barak  are  omitted,  and  the  next  point 
of  narrative  is  the  muster,  made  luminous  by  the  enumeration  of 
the  tribes  that  refused,  and  the  tribes  that  came  zealously,  and  the 
tribe  that  changed  its  mind.  Nothing  more  follows  until  we  reach 
the  battle  and  rout,  all  brought  out  in  a  few  bold  strokes  —  kings 
coming  to  fight,  the  stars  fighting  against  them ;  horses  plunging 
in  the  flooded  plain ;  the  sudden  bitterness  when  Meroz  proves 
unequal  to  the  crisis.  In  the  matter  of  the  assassination  even  the 
history  was  detailed.  But  here  again  there  was  a  logical  connect- 
edness in  the  details :  the  warrior  arriving,  making  provision 
against  surprise,  arid  then  submitting  to  sleep  and  so  to  murder. 
But  in  the  lyric  we  leap  from  the  hospitable  matron  to  the  mur- 
deress taking  the  nail  and  hammer ;  what  remains  is  so  vivid  that 
we  can  count  the  blows  and  watch  the  writhings,  while  the  purely 
imaginary  detail  of  the  warrior's  household  waiting  his  return  is 
drawn  out  at  full  length.  This  concentration  of  a  whole  story  into 
a  few  luminous  details  gives  us  our  first  note  of  lyric  movement. 

A  second  distinguishing  feature  of  the  song  is  the  way  in  which 
the  narrative  is  delayed  or  broken  by  refrains,  or  by  what  are  called 
'  apostrophe's,'  that  is,  passages  in  which  the  singers 
'turn  aside'  from  the  story  to  address  heaven,  or 
the  bystanders,  or  one  another.  Three  lines  of 
refrain,  four  of  prelude,  and  a  long  apostrophe  to  God,  are  inter- 
posed before  the  narrative  even  commences.  Then  when  the 
desolation  of  the  country  under  Jabin's  oppression  has  been  told, 
there  is  a  break,  filled  up  by  the  refrain  recurring  in  an  enlarged 
form.  When  the  mustering  of  the  tribes  is  reached,  after  a  single 
line  there  is  an  abrupt  departure  from  the  narrative,  and  the  singers 
occupy  a  quatrain  with  cheering  one  another  on  to  their  task.  It 
is  clear  that  these  digressions  are  part  of  the  artistic  setting  to  the 
story.  When  water  flows  on  smoothly  without  any  check  it  may 
be  a  useful  canal  or  drain;  but  the  poetic  brook  must  have  its 
course  delayed  by  many  a  winding,  and  interrupted  by  the  rocks 
over  which  it  foams.  We  may  then  add  interruption  to  the  devices 
of  lyric  movement. 


138  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

A  third  feature  of  the  song  lies  upon  the  surface  :  its  structure 
is  such  as  to  imply  the  antiphonal  performance  in  which  one 
singer  or  set  of  singers  is  answered  by  another.  I 
fonnance*  must  dissent  however  from  the  usual  arrangement 

which  divides  Deborah's  Song  as  between  solo  and 
chorus.  It  seems  clear  that  the  nature  of  the  antifJhony  is  given 
by  the  first  verse  of  the  chapter  —  "Then  sang  Deborah  and 
Barak "  :  not  that  the  two  individuals  sang  a  duet,  but  the  ode 
would  be  performed  by  a  Chorus  of  Women  with  Deborah  leading 
them,  and  a  Chorus  of  Men  led  by  Barak.  When  the  poem  is 
structurally  examined  in  the  light  of  this  suggestion,  not  only  do 
the  divisions  easily  present  themselves,  but  a  number  of  coinci- 
dences confirm  the  suggestion.  Thus  the  Men  lead  off  with  a 

description  —  in  the  rhythm  of  elegy  —  of  the  oppression  ; 

Deborah  and  the  Women  break  in  (with  a  return  to  ordi- 
nary rhythm)  at  the  words,  "  I  Deborah  arose."  When  the  singers 

bid  publish  the  tidings  of  victory,  the  Men  call  to  those 

ZO 

that  ride  or  walk  by  the  way,  or  sit  on  carpets  as  public 

officials,  —  that  is,  they  call  to  men;    the  answering  Chorus  of 

Women  would  spread  the  news  "  in  the  places  of  drawing 

water,"  the  natural  spots  where  women  would  gather  and 

chat.     In  another  passage,  an  apostrophe  of  four  lines,  there  is 

one  couplet  of  the  Men  cheering  on  Deborah,  and  another 

of  the  Women  cheering  on  Barak.     The  mustering  of  the 

tribes  divides  itself  line  by  line  :  if  the  first  line  be  given  to  the 

Women,  as  relating  to  Ephraim  the  locality  of  Deborah, 

the  fourth  line  falls  to  the  Men  and  it  mentions  Zebulun, 

the  tribe  of  Barak ;  the  next  line  (of  the  Women)  connects  Issachar 

with  Deborah,  and  the  line  that  follows  (and  would  fall  to  the  Men) 

connects  the  same  tribe  with  Barak.     Then,  in  the  climax, 

34 

the  Men  elaborately  picture  the  actual  murder  of  Sisera, 

and  the  Women  add  the  feminine  touch  of  the  mother  and  her 

ladies  awaiting  the  dead  warrior's  return.     It  is  hardly 

necessary  to  dilate  upon  the  artistic  effect  of  a  narrative 

thus  given  to  us  from  one  side  and  another  alternately.     One 


THE  BIBLICAL   ODE 


139 


15-16 


single  antiphonal  effect  may  be  instanced.  The  great  pastoral 
tribe  of  Reuben  was  amongst  the  defaulters.  This  is  brought  out 
by  the  Men  first  painting  Reuben's  '  resolves ' ;  then  the 
Women  interpose  a  sarcastic  question  as  to  inaction ;  then 
the  Men  repeat  their  former  couplet  with  the  change  of  a  single 
word  to  express  Reuben's  prudent  second  thoughts.  Finally,  the 
antiphonal  effect  is  varied  by  the  passages  in  which  the  two 
choruses  sing  together.  This  is  especially  powerful  at  the  close, 
where,  after  the  story  itself  has  been  drawn  out  by  the  two  bodies 
of  singers  to  its  last  detail,  there  is  a  sudden  break,  and  both 
choruses  unite  in  the  apostrophe,  "  So  perish  all  thine  enemies, 
O  LORD  ! " 

DEBORAH'S   SONG 

REFRAIN 

Men.         For  that  the  leaders  took  the  lead  in  Israel — 
Women.     For  that  the  people  offered  themselves  willingly  — 
Tutti.  Bless  ye  the  LORD  ! 

PRELUDE 

Men.         Hear,  O  ye  kings  — 
Women.  Give  ear,  O  ye  princes  — 

Men.         I,  even  I,  will  sing  unto  the  LORD  — 
Women.  I  will  sing  praise  to  the  LORD,  the  God  of  Israel. 

APOSTROPHE 
Tutti,         LORD,  when  thou  wentest  forth  out  of  Seir, 

When  thou  marchedst  out  of  the  field  of  Edom, 
The  earth  trembled,  the  heavens  also  dropped, 

Yea,  the  clouds  dropped  water. 
The  mountains  flowed  down  at  the  presence  of  the  LORD, 

Even  yon  Sinai  at  the  presence  of  the  LORD,  the  God  of  Israel. 

I.  THE  DESOLATION 
Men.          In  the  days  of  Shamgar  the  son  of  Anath, 

In  the  days  of  Jael, 
The  highways  were  unoccupied, 

And  the  travellers  walked  through  byways ; 
The  rulers  ceased  in  Israel, 

They  ceased  — 


140 


LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


Women.    Until  that  I,  Deborah,  arose, 

That  I  arose  a  mother  in  Israel. 
They  chose  new  gods  ; 

Then  was  war  in  the  gates  : 
Was  there  a  shield  or  spear  seen 

Among  forty  thousand  in  Israel  ? 

REFRAIN  ENLARGED 

Men.          My  heart  is  toward  the  governors  of  Israel — 
Women,      Ye  that  offered  yourselves  -willingly  among  the  people  — 
Tutti.  Bless  ye  the  LORD  ! 

Men.          Tell  of  it,  ye  that  ride  on  white  asses, 
Ye  that  sit  on  rich  carpets, 

And  ye  that  walk  by  the  way  :  — 
Women.    Far  .from  the  noise  of  archers, 

In  the  places  of  drawing  water  :  — 
Tutti.  There  shall  they  rehearse  the  righteous  acts  of  the  LORD, 

Even  the  righteous  acts  of  his  rule  in  Israel. 

II.  THE  MUSTER 
Tutti.        Then  the  people  of  the  LORD  went  down  to  the  gates  — 

{Men.        Awake,  awake,  Deborah, 

Awake,  awake,  utter  a  song :  — 
Women.     Arise,  Barak, 

And  lead  thy  captivity  captive,  thou  son  of  Abinoam.) 

Tutti.        Then  came  down  a  remnant  of  the  nobles, 

The  people  of  the  LORD  came  down  for  me  against  the  mighty. 

Women.  Out  of  Ephraim  came  down  they  whose  root  is  in  Amalek  — 

Men.  After  thee,  Benjamin,  among  thy  peoples  — 

Women.  Out  of  Machir  came  down  governors  — 

Men.  And  out  of  Zebulun  they  that  handle  the  marshal's  staff  — 

Women.  And  the  princes  of  Issachar  were  with  Deborah  — 

Men.  As  was  Issachar,  so  was  Barak : 

Tutti.  Into  the  valley  they  rushed  forth  at  his  feet. 

Men.         By  the  watercourses  of  Reuben 

There  were  great  resolves  of  heart. 
Women.  Why  satest  thou  among  the  sheepfolds, 

To  hear  the  pipings  for  the  flocks? 
Men.  At  the  watercourses  of  Reuben 

There  were  great  searchings  of  heart ! 


THE  BIBLICAL   ODE 


141 


Women.     Gilead  abode  beyond  Jordan  — 

Men.  And  Dan,  why  did  he  remain  in  ships?  — 

Women.    Asher  sat  still  at  the  haven  of  the  sea, 

And  abode  by  his  creeks. 

Men.          Zebulun  was  a  people  that  jeoparded  their  lives  unto  the  death, 
And  Naphtali,  upon  the  high  places  of  the  field. 

III.  THE  BATTLE  AND  ROUT 

Strophe 

Men.          The  kings  came  and  fought ; 

Then  fought  the  kings  of  Canaan, 
In  Taanach  by  the  waters  of  Megiddo :  — 
They  took  no  gain  of  money ! 

Antistrophe 

Women.    They  fought  from  heaven, 

The  stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera. 
The  river  Kishon  swept  them  away,  — 
That  ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon ! 

Strophe 

Men.          O  my  soul,  march  on  with  strength ! 
Then  did  the  horsehoofs  stamp 
By  reason  of  the  pransings, 

The  pransings  of  their  strong  ones. 

Antistrophe 

Women.    Curse  ye,  Meroz,  said  the  angel  of  the  LORD, 
Curse  ye  bitterly  the  inhabitants  thereof ; 
Because  they  came  not  to  the  help  of  the  LORD, 
To  the  help  of  the  LORD  against  the  mighty ! 


IV.  THE  RETRIBUTION 

Strophe 

Men.          Blessed  above  women  shall  Jael  be,  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite, 

Blessed  shall  she  be  above  women  in  the  tent ! 
He  asked  water,  and  she  gave  him  milk  ; 
She  brought  him  butter  in  a  lordly  dish. 


142  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

She  put  her  hand  to  the  nail, 

And  her  right  hand  to  the  workman's  hammer  ; 
And  with  the  hammer  she  smote  Sisera. 

She  smote  through  his  head, 

Yea,  she  pierced  and  struck  through  his  temples. 
At  her  feet  he  bowed,  he  fell,  he  lay : 
At  her  feet  he  bowed,  he  fell : 

Where  he  bowed,  there  he  fell  down  dead ! 

Antistrophe 

Women.    Through  the  window  she  looked  forth,  and  cried, 

The  mother  of  Sisera,  through  the  lattice, 
"  Why  is  his  chariot  so  long  in  coming? 

Why  tarry  the  wheels  of  his  chariots  ?  " 
Her  wise  ladies  answered  her, 

Yea,  she  returned  answer  to  herself, 
"  Have  they  not  found, 
Have  they  not  divided  the  spoil? 

A  damsel,  two  damsels  to  every  man  ; 
To  Sisera  a  spoil  of  divers  colours, 
A  spoil  of  divers  colours  of  embroidery, 

Of  divers  colours  of  embroidery  on  both  sides,  on  the  necks 
of  the  spoil?" 

APOSTROPHE 

Tutti.         So  let  all  thine  enemies  perish,  O  LORD  : 

But  let  them  that  love  him  be  as  the  sun  when  he  goeth 
forth  in  his  might ! 

The  ode  most  nearly  resembling  this  of  Deborah  is  the  Song 
of  Moses  and  Miriam  at  the  Red  Sea.  Here  again  the  mode  of 
song  of  Moses  performance  is  exactly  indicated.  The  first  verse 
and  Miriam  says,  "  Then  sang  Moses  and  the  children  of  Israel 
Exodus  xv  this  song,,.  the  twentieth  verse  adds:  "And 

Miriam,  the  prophetess,  the  sister  of  Aaron,  took  a  timbrel  in 
her  hand ;  and  all  the  women  went  out  after  her  with  timbrels 
and  with  dances.  And  Miriam  answered  them,  Sing  ye  to  the 
LORD,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously ;  the  horse  and  his  rider 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  143 

hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea."  The  natural  interpretation  of  these 
verses  taken  together  is  that  the  words  last  quoted  are  a  refrain, 
and  to  be  sung  by  Miriam  and  the  Women ;  while  the  body  of  the 
Song  was  for  Moses  and  the  Men.  The  refrain  would  be  repeated 
at  the  close  of  each  stanza.  The  structure  suggests  a  prelude  and 
three  stanzas,  each  of  which  commences  with  an  apostrophe  to 
God,  and  then  deals  with  the  subject  of  the  deliverance.  A  further 
examination  of  these  strophes  reveals  augmenting, 
as  a  mode  of  lyric  movement ;  not  only  do  the 
successive  strophes  increase  in  the  number  of  their 
lines,  but  they  bring  out  the  incident  with  more  and  more  fulness. 
The  first  merely  refers  to  the  event :  the  hosts  cast  into  the  sea 
and  sinking  like  a  stone.  The  second  stanza  becomes  a  picture 
full  of  powerful  details ;  floods  standing  on  heaps  and  depths  con- 
gealed, the  enemy  already  counting  his  spoils,  the  single  blast  of 
wind,  and  the  sinking  like  lead.  But  when  the  incident  is  touched 
by  the  third  strophe  we  have,  not  details,  but  consequences.  The 
event  is  stretched  to  take  in  all  that  will  follow  from  it :  the  guid- 
ing through  the  wilderness  thus  wonderfully  opened  to  them,  the 
terror  falling  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan  and  the  kings  that 
lie  in  the  way,  the  bringing  in  and  planting  in  the  mountain  of 
inheritance  —  all  poetically  realised  in  the  moment  of  this  the  first 
step.  To  describe  the  movement  of  the  whole  ode  we  may  say 
that  the  prelude  introduces  the  great  deliverance  with  a  shock 
that  is  like  a  plunge,  and  the  augmenting  strophes  follow  like  rip- 
ples widening  to  the  furthest  bound  that  imagination  can  go. 

SONG  OF  MOSES  AND  MIRIAM 

PRELUDE 

Men  and\     I  will  sing  unto  the  LORD,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ; 
Women.        )  The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea, 

The  LORD  is  my  strength  and  song, 

And  he  is  become  my  salvation : 
This  is  my  God,  and  I  will  praise  him; 
My  father's  God,  and  I  will  exalt  him. 


144 


LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


Men,          The  LORD  is  a  man  of  war : 
The  LORD  is  his  name. 
Pharaoh's  chariots  and  his  host  hath  he  cast  into  the  sea: 

And  his  chosen  captains  are  sunk  in  the  Red  Sea. 
The  deeps  cover  them : 

They  went  down  into  the  depths  like  a  stone. 
Women.     Sing  ye  to  the  LORD,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ; 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea. 


Men.          Thy  right  hand,  O  LORD,  is  glorious  in  power, 

Thy  right  hand,  O  LORD,  dasheth  in  pieces  the  enemy. 
And  in  the  greatness  of  thine  excellency  thou  overthrowest  them 

that  rise  up  against  thee : 

Thou  sendest  forth  thy  wrath,  it  consumeth  them  as  stubble. 
And  with  the  blast  of  thy  nostrils  the  waters  were  piled  up, 
The  floods  stood  upright  as  an  heap  ; 
The  deeps  were  congealed  in  the  heart  of  the  sea. 
The  enemy  said,  I  will  pursue,  I  will  overtake,  I  will  divide  the 

spoil : 

My  lust  shall  be  satisfied  upon  them; 
I  will  draw  my  sword,  my  hand  shall  destroy  them. 
Thou  didst  blow  with  thy  wind,  the  sea  covered  them : 

They  sank  as  lead  in  the  mighty  waters. 

Women.     Sing  ye  to  the  LORD,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ; 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea. 


Men.          Who  is  like  unto  thee,  O  LORD,  among  the  gods? 

Who  is  like  thee,  glorious  in  holiness, 

Fearful  in  praises,  doing  wonders? 
Thou  stretchedst  out  thy  right  hand, 

The  earth  swallowed  them. 
Thou  in  thy  mercy  hast  led  the  people  which  thou  hast  redeemed : 

Thou  hast  guided  them  in  thy  strength  to  thy  holy  habitation. 
The  peoples  have  heard,  they  tremble : 

Pangs  have  taken  hold  on  the  inhabitants  of  Philistia. 
Then  were  the  dukes  of  Edom  amazed; 

The  mighty  men  of  Moab,  trembling  taketh  hold  upon  them : 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  145 

All  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan  are  melted  away. 
Terror  and  dread  falleth  upon  them  ; 

By  the  greatness  of  thine  arm  they  are  as  still  as  a  stone; 
Till  thy  people  pass  over,  O  LORD, 
Till  the  people  pass  over,  which  thou  hast  purchased. 

Thou  shalt  bring  them  in,  and  plant  them  in  the  mountain  of  thine 

inheritance, 

The  place,  O  LORD,  which  thou  hast  made  for  thee  to  dwell  in, 
The  sanctuary,  O  LORD,  which  thy  hands  have  established. 

The  LORD  sliall  reign  for  ever  and  ever. 

Women.     Sing  ye  to  the  LORD,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  , 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea. 


The  ode  next  to  be  considered  .is  amongst  the  most  powerful 

of  all   sacred  lyrics  :    but   totally   unlike   the   two 

'         '   .  Psalm  Ixxvili 

already  reviewed.     It  is  the  seventy-eighth  psalm. 

As  to  its  subject,  it  is  sufficient  at  this  point  to  say  that  it  is  a  sur- 
vey of  the  history  of  Israel,  leading  up  to  the  call  of  Judah  to  be 
the  Lord's  people  now  that  Northern  Israel  has  fallen  away.  The 
movement  of  the  ode  is  an  expansion  of  a  type  of  parallelism 
already  mentioned  :  it  is  one  that  is  specially  characteristic  of  Bibli- 
cal poetry,  and  we  shall  meet  with  it  again  and  again. 


It  may  be  called   the  pendulum   movement:   the     eulum 


course  of  thought  in  a  poem  seems  to  swing  back- 
wards and  forwards  between  two  ideas  or  two  phases  of  a  subject. 
The  psalm  has  an  unusually  long  prelude.     It  is  a  com- 
mon device  in  music  to  prepare  the  way  for  some  great 
theme  by  a  succession  of  trumpet  tones,  the  reiteration  of  which 
keeps  the  mind  in  a  state  of  expectation  that  helps  to  emphasize 
the  theme  when  it  comes.     By  a  similar  effect  in  this  prelude  the 
psalmist  announces  a  law,  a  parable,  sayings  of  old,  traditions  from 
fathers  to  be  told  to  children,  that  they  may  tell  it  to  the  next 
generation,  that  these  may  set  their  hopes  in  God,  and  not  be,  as 
their  fathers,  a  rebellious  generation  whose  spirit  was  not  stedfast 
with  God.     The  phrase  "  not  stedfast  "  seems  the  point  leading 
to  the  regular  movement  of  the  poem  and  its  alternating  stanzas. 
The  thought  sways  throughout  the  rest  of  the  ode  between  two 


146  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

ideas  :  on  one  hand  we  see  bursts  of  Divine  Energy  in  behalf  of 
Israel ;   on  the  other  hand  we  have  the  dead  weight  of  human 

dulness  and  frailty  by  which  the  Divine  purposes 
9-1 1,  Frailty 

are  frustrated.  First,  a  short  stanza  puts  the  defec- 
tion of  Northern  Israel  under  the  metaphor  of  battalions  deserting 
on  the  field  of  battle;  "so  the  children  of  Ephraim  "  deserted 
the  covenant  and  forgat  God's  wondrous  works.  At  the  words 

"  wondrous  works "   the  pendulum  of  movement 

13-16,  Divine         swings  to  the  other  side  :  we  have  an  outburst  of 
Energy 

Divine  Energy,  the  energy  of  Deliverance.     We 

hear  how  he  piled  up  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  in  a  heap ;  how 

the  fire  led  them  by  night  and  the  cloud  by  day ;  how  the  dry  rock 

was  cloven  and  poured  out  streams  with  the  full  flow  of  a  river. 

But  it  is  in  vain  (the  movement  has  swung  back)  : 

17-30.  Frailty  ,   ,.  ... 

the  delivered  people  are  found  intent  upon  their 
appetites,  and  the  doubts  which  a  life  of  appetite  engenders. 

Can  God  prepare  a  table  in  the  wilderness  ? 

Behold,  he  smote  the  rock,  that  waters  gushed  out, 

And  streams  overflowed; 

Can  he  give  bread  also? 

Will  he  provide  flesh  for  his  people  ? 

We  are  thus  brought  to  another  turn  in  the  movement,  and  there 

is  a  burst  of  Divine  Energy,  this  time  the  energy 

21-31,  Divine         of  judgment.     The  rush  of  verses   suggests  the 

scornful  ease  with  which  the  skies  are  bidden  to 

open  and  rain  down  manna,  the  winds  are  guided  so  that  they 

rain  flesh  as  dust  and  winged  fowl  as  the  sand  of  the  seas ;  then, 

before  the  people  have  time  to  be  satiated,  the  Wrath  is  slaying 

amongst  them,  so  close  comes  the  punishment  upon  the  lust.     But 

judgment,  like  mercy,  has  no  permanent  hold  upon 

33-42,  Frailty  ,  ' 

the  unstedfast  people ;  the  movement  has  swung 
back,  as  the  history  settles  down  to  a  wearisome  iteration  of  sin- 
ning, repenting  and  sinning,  of  dissembling  repentance  and  com- 
passionate forgiveness. 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  147 

For  all  this  they  sinned  still, 

And  believed  not  in  his  wondrous  works. 

Therefore  their  days  did  he  consume  in  vanity, 

And  their  years  in  terror. 

When  he  slew  them,  then  they  inquired  after  him  : 

And  they  returned  and  sought  God  early; 

And  they  remembered  that  God  was  their  rock, 

And  the  Most  High  God  their  redeemer. 

But  they  flattered  him  with  their  mouth, 

And  lied  unto  him  with  their  tongue. 

For  their  heart  was  not  stedfast  with  him, 

Neither  were  they  faithful  in  his  covenant. 

But  he,  being  full  of  compassion,  forgave  their  iniquity, 

And  destroyed  them  not  : 

Yea,  many  a  time  turned  he  his  anger  away, 

And  did  not  stir  up  all  his  wrath. 

And  he  remembered  that  they  were  but  flesh; 

A  wind  that  passeth  away,  and  cometh  not  again. 

How  oft  did  they  rebel  against  him  in  the  wilderness, 

And  grieve  him  in  the  desert  ! 

And  they  turned  again  and  tempted  God, 

And  provoked  the  Holy  One  of  Israel. 

They  remembered  not  his  hand, 

Nor  the  day  when  he  redeemed  them  from  the  adversary. 

This  phrase  is  the  signal  for  another  turn  in  the  movement,  and 
the  following  strophe  is  filled  with  the  Divine  Energy  of  Redemp- 
tion.    It  displays  before  us,  as  in  a  finished  picture, 
side  by  side  the  judgments  falling  on  the  enemy         '    "" 


and  the  tenderness  bestowed  upon  Israel;  how 
wrath,  indignation,  and  trouble,  a  band  of  angels  of  evil,  make  a 
path  for  God's  anger,  as  plagues  strike  the  land  of  Egypt  and 
pestilence  preys  upon  its  people  ;  while  Israel  is  guided  like  a 
flock  of  sheep  through  the  wilderness,  and  brought  into  the  moun- 
tain land  of  their  inheritance.  All  this  is  lost  upon  them  :  we 

have  returned  to  the  theme  of  frailty  and  unsted- 

,  56-64,  Frailty 

fastness  as  we  see  the  people  in  their  land  of  prom- 

ise settling  down  to  the  worship  of  the  high  places,  until  God 
comes  to  greatly  abhor  Israel.     And  as  he  silently  forsakes  them 


148  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

gradually  their  strength  and  glory  depart ;  violence  cuts  off  the 
youth,  the  maidens  have  no  marriage-song,  the  very 
priests  fall  by  the  sword,  and  their  widows  make 
no  lamentation.  Suddenly  the  movement  of  the 

ode  swings  round  for  the  last  time. 

Then  the  LORD  awaked  as  one  out  of  sleep, 

Like  a  mighty  man  that  shouteth  by  reason  of  wine. 

With  one  stroke  the  enemy  is  thrust  back  for  ever ;  and  then  the 
final  burst  of  Divine  Energy  is  seen  in  a  New  Call :  as  before  the 
whole  nation  of  Israel  had  been  called  out  from  the  whole  world 
to  become  a  peculiar  people  to  Jehovah,  so  now  he  passes  over 
Joseph  and  Ephraim,  and  chooses  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  he  takes 
David  from  the  sheepfolds  to  be  their  shepherd ;  and  the  unsted- 
fastness  which  has  reigned  throughout  the  ode  finds  a  final 
contrast  in  the  Sanctuary  which  he  builds  like  the  heights, 

Like  the  earth  which  he  hath  established  for  ever. 

This  seventy-eighth  psalm  is  one  of  four  which  I  have  ventured 
to  group  together  under  the  title  of  '  National  Anthems.'  True, 

they  are  very  different  from  what  in  modern  times 
them's1*1  An"  are  ca^e(^  by  that  name  ;  but  the  difference  tallies 

with  differences  of  circumstances.  With  us  a 
National  Anthem  may  well  be  a  simple  and  brief  lyric,  for  proba- 
bly the  nation  is  constituted  a  nation  by  some  elementary  con- 
sideration of  race  or  habitat.  But  Israel  had  been  called  out  of 
its  original  land,  had  been  led  from  one  part  of  the  world  to 
another,  had  been  constituted  the  chosen  people  of  God  by  a 
long  course  of  Providential  discipline.  It  is  natural  therefore 
that  the  National  Hymn  of  such  a  people  should  take  the  form 
of  a  review  of  their  history  and  relation  to  God.  It  is  just  such 
a  review  which  makes  the  common  ground  between  the  four 
psalms ;  and  when  we  examine  their  differences  the  results  both 
confirm  the  classification,  and  explain  further  how  it  comes  that 
Israel  should  have  four  National  Anthems  and  not  one.  We  have 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  149 

seen  that  the  seventy- eighth  psalm  is  characterised  by  a  continu- 
ous alternation  between  God's  achievements  for  his  Psalm  i^^m 
people  and  their  persistent  ingratitude  and  sin,  and  Anthem  of  South- 
that  it  ends  with  the  final  rejection  of  Ephraim  and  em  Israel 
the  call  to  Judah.     It  is  thus  fitted  to  be  the  National  Anthem 
of  Southern  Israel  when  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  has  been 
overthrown  and  destroyed.     The  psalm  most  nearly  Psalmcvi 
resembling  this  is  the  hundred  and  sixth  :  not  only  Anthem  of  the 
general  drift,  but  many  of  its  phases  seem  echoes  CaPtivity 
of  the  seventy-eighth  psalm.     But  the  pendulum  structure  is  almost 
lost  by  the  preponderance  of  one  side  of  the  thought ;  from  first 
to  last  it  is  sin  and  rebellion  which  dominates  the  poem,  and  the 
history  is  carried  on  to  the  final  fall. 

He  made  them  also  to  be  pitied 

Of  all  those  that  carried  them  captives. 

Save  us,  O  LORD  our  God, 

And  gather  us  from  among  the  nations, 
To  give  thanks  unto  thy  holy  name, 

And  to  triumph  in  thy  praise. 

Thus  this  hundred  and  sixth  psalm  would  seem  to  be  the  Hymn 
of  Southern  Israel  modified  so  as  to  make  it  the  Anthem  of  the 
Captivity.      There  is  a  great  difference  when  we  Psaimcv 
come  to  the  historic  survey  which  makes  the  hun-  ^n*he™°f  *he 

*  Undivided  Na- 

dred  and  fifth  psalm.    Here  all  trace  of  an  alterna-  tion  in  Canaan 
tion  between  God's  work  and  Israel's  sin  is  gone.    And  the  history 
is  carried  just  as  far  as  the  conquest  of  Canaan  and  no  farther. 

And  he  gave  them  the  lands  of  the  nations; 

And  they  took  the  labour  of  the  peoples  in  possession. 

This  of  itself  would  suggest  that  we  have  here  the  Anthem  of  the 
undivided  nation  in  the  promised  land ;  and  the  suggestion  is 
confirmed  by  the  wording  of  the  reference  to  the  covenant : 

Saying,  "  Unto  thee  will  I  give  the  land  of  Canaan, 

The  lot  of  your  inheritance :  " 
When  they  were  but  a  few  men  in  number; 

Yea,  very  few,  and  sojourners  in  it. 


150  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

It  is  natural  in  the  moment  of  conquest  to  go  back  to  the  old 

sojourn  in  the  land.     And  similar  considerations  explain 

the  large  amount  of  space  given  in  this  song  to  Joseph, 

the  individual  through  whom  Israel  departed  out  of  Canaan  and 

Psaim  cxxxvi        went  down  into  Egypt.1     The  fourth  psalm  of  the 

Anthem  of  the  group,  the  hundred  and  thirty-sixth,  is  marked  off 
Nation  in  the  /•  -,-,  ,  L  .  -i  .,  •  ,  ,. 

Wilderness  ""om   al*   tne  rest  "7  tne   Primitive   character  of 

its  structure  :   the  second  line  of  each  couplet  is 
the  refrain, 

For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 

The  whole  poem  is  of  the  simplest  type.  Its  history  never  reaches 
Canaan,  but  prominence  is  given  to  Sihon  king  of  the  Amorites,- 
and  Og  king  of  Bashan,  and  it  is  their  land  which  is  made  a  heri- 
tage for  Israel.  Clearly  this  is  the  National  Anthem  of  the  people 
in  the  wilderness  ;  and  in  this  light  the  final  theme  of  praise  — 

He  giveth  food  to  all  flesh  — 

becomes  more  than  a  commonplace  ;  it  is  a  reference  to  the 
miraculous  feeding  of  the  people  in  the  desert.  The  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  people  of  Israel,  then,  have  sufficiently 
explained  why  we  should  have  four  National  Anthems  in  these 
four  historic  psalms  :  the  simple  rhythmic  Hymn  of  the  Wilder- 
ness, the  Hymn  of  the  whole  nation  in  Canaan  with  its  unbroken 
exultation,  the  Hymn  of  Southern  Judah  after  the  fall  of  the  north, 
swaying  evenly  between  Divine  manifestations  and  national  sin,  and 
the  Hymn  of  the  Captivity,  in  which  all  is  swallowed  up  in  the 
idea  of  national  unfaithfulness. 

It  is  natural  to  pass  from  this  group  of  poems  to  the  Ode  on 
the  Covenant  (Psalm  eighty-nine).     This  is  transparently  clear 

in  its  language  ;  it  needs  mention  only  because  of 
Ode  on  the  Cov- 

enant the  peculiarity  of  its  structure.     It  seems  strange 

Psalm  ixxxix        to  gn(j  an  Q(je^  tke  pre]u(je  of  which  announces 


1  I  have  argued  elsewhere  for  the  existence  of  other  prophetic  hymns  of  Israel's 
history,  identical  in  type  with  Psalm  cv,  which  appear  by  quotation  in  Ecclesiasticus 
and  in  Hosea.  See  those  volumes  of  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible  :  Ecclesiasticus^ 
page  181,  Afinor  Prophets,  page  246. 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  151 

a  song  of  God's  mercies  and  their  eternal  faithfulness,  ending 
with  a  long  wail  over  the  anointed  of  the  Lord  as  rejected  and 
forsaken.  At  first  we  are  tempted  to  think  of  this  final  section 
as  outside  the  unity  of  the  poem,  the  addition  of  some  later  age. 
But  a  close  examination  of  the  structure  makes  it  possible  to 
include  the  elegy  within  the  ode.  We  have  seen  that  interruption 
is  amongst  the  devices  of  lyric  movement.  There  is  an  example 
of  this  on  an  extensive  scale  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  psalm :  no 
sooner  has  the  Divine  message  of  the  Covenant  been  announced 
in  four  lines,  than  a  break  occurs  — 

And  the  heavens  shall  praise  thy  wonders,  O  LORD  — 

The  style  wholly  changes,  and  an  outburst  of  exultation  is  carried 
on  for  twenty-eight  lines,  making  one  of  the  loftiest  strains  of  ado- 
ration in  the  whole  psalter.  The  second  strophe  returns 

19-37 
to  the  subject  of  the  Covenant  in  an  elaborate  vision,  to 

which  succeeds  the  section  of  sorrow  and  complaint.  The  sym- 
metry then  of  the  whole  poem  suggests  that  the  change  to  lamen- 
tation is  an  interruption  of  the  second  strophe  as  the  burst  of 
exultation  was  an  interruption  of  the  first :  the  two  interruptions, 
each  of  seven  quatrains,  exactly  balancing  one  another. 

The  odes  already  reviewed  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  three 
sources  from  which  lyric  poetry  would  naturally  originate.  The 
Song  of  Deborah  is  a  Ballad  Dance  :  that  ultimate 
literary  form,  in  which  intricacies  of  thought  are 
reinforced  by  musical  modulations  and  evolutions  of 
bodily  movement,  is  here  represented  in  its  supreme  manifestation. 
Again,  a  specialised  type  of  Ballad  Dance  was  the  primitive  Wail 
or  Dirge.  It  does  not  seem  strange  to  us  to  have  our  devotions  led 
by  a  professional  choir :  it  did  not  seem  strange  to  the  Jews,  even 
of  New  Testament  times,  to  call  in  professional  mourners  to  express 
their  emotions  of  bereavement.  The  Wail  had  a  rhythm  of  its 
own  :  with  or  without  this  '  elegiac '  rhythm  the  Elegy  established 
itself  as  a  distinct  literary  form,  and  in  late  literature  could  travel 
so  far  from  its  origin  as  we  have  seen  in  the  Elegiac  Ode  on  the 


152  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Covenant.  There  is  yet  a  third  source  of  lyrics  :  the  close  kin- 
ship in  Hebrew  of  verse  and  prose  smoothed  the  way  for  spon- 
taneous utterance  to  become  poetic.  While  in  all  languages  exalted 
speech  passes  into  rhetoric,  in  Hebrew  the  prophetic  outpourings 
of  a  Balaam  or  Moses  can  be  lyric  :  three  out  of  the  four  National 
Anthems  need  no  origin  beyond  this  to  explain  the  type  of  poetry 
they  exhibit.  Later  in  the  development  of  a  people  a  distinct 
literary  sense  is  born :  into  such  conscious  literature  the  earlier 
lyric  forms  are  absorbed.  In  this  more  spiritual  region  the  adven- 
titious aids  of  music  and  bodily  movement  die  away.  The  dance 
has  been  only  the  scaffolding  with  which  has  been  built  up  rhythm. 
Antiphony  with  its  diversity  of  performers  tends  to  give  way  to 
antistrophic  correspondence  of  stanzas.  Increased  subtlety  of 
thought  demands  greater  freedom  of  musical  form.  Or  again, 
the  literary  habit  invents  its  own  intricacies  of  form  :  and  acrostic 
or  alphabetical  bonds  distinguish  later  Biblical  poems.  In  the 
case  of  Hebrew,  however,  as  its  lyric  poetry  passes  into  the  later 
phase  it  encounters  a  force  of  a  conservative  nature.  The  Bible 
ascribes  to  historical  times  and  the  reign  of  king  David  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  elaborate  temple  ritual.  In  such  liturgical  exer- 
cises antiphony,  and  elaborate  musical  accompaniment,  are  an 
essential ;  even  bodily  movement,  at  least  so  far  as  it  is  proces- 
sional, has  a  place  in  them.  Thus  throughout  the  later  Biblical 
poetry  the  Ritual  Psalms  are  seen  as  reproducing  characteristic 
features  of  its  earliest  form  the  Dance. 

It  is  perhaps  not  fanciful  to  look  for  a  climax  of  lyric  power 
where  the  earlier  and  later  influences  meet.     This  might  be  said 

of  the  sixty-eighth  psalm,  which,  notwithstanding 
Processional  Ode  t^ie  ODSCUrity  °f  its  details,  stirs  the  enthusiasm  of 

every  reader.  It  might  be  called  the  Te  Deum  of 
the  Hebrews :  composed  perhaps  originally  for  some  specific 
celebration  its  terms  are  so  general  as  to  make  it  serve  for  any 
high  festal  occasion.  It  must  thus  be  classed  with  ritual  poetry : 
and  yet  its  processionary  character  reflects  the  early  joyous  move- 
ment of  the  sacred  dance.  Its  function  of  processional  hymn  is 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  153 

made  to  reflect  a  common  imagery  upon  all  the  matter  it  touches, 
until  past,  present,  and  future  of  Israel's  history  appear  before  us 
as  a  series  of  vast  processions.  The  opening  note  is  an  echo  of 
the  traditional  formula  of  procession,  when  the  Levites  in  the 
wilderness  journeys  started  with  the  ark : 

Let  God  arise,  let  his  enemies  be  scattered; 

Let  them  also  that  hate  him  flee  before  him. 

Then  the  first  elaborate  section  is  a  review  of  the  past.  The 
wilderness  life  of  Israel  is  suggested  as  a  procession  of  "Him 
that  rideth  through  the  deserts."  The  oppressed  and 
solitary  prisoners  Nof  Egypt  have  been  multiplied  into 
prosperous  families.  The  people  marched  through  the  wilder- 
ness, with  their  God  before  them,  Sinai  itself  trembling  at  the 
presence  :  a  "  plentiful  rain  "  of  manna  was  prepared  by  the  good 
God  to  strengthen  his  weary  inheritance  while  they  must  dwell  in 
the  desert.  When  strophe  passes  to  antistrophe  we  have  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  :  such  is  the  concentrated  sweep  of  lyric  move- 
ment that  the  whole  period  resolves  itself  into  a  procession  of  God 
from  Sinai  to  Zion  — 

Sinai  is  in  the  sanctuary. 

But  two  moments  can  be  discerned  in  the  Divine  warfare : 

The  LORD  giveth  the  word  [of  command]  : 

The  women  that  publish  the  tidings  [of  victory]  are  a  great  host. 

The  successive  victories  that  are  thus  published  appear  only  in 
snatches  of  triumph-songs  (of  which  we  of  course  know  nothing 
but  these  snatches) :  a  vocal  procession  of  war-cries. 

"  Kings  of  armies,  they  flee,  they  flee, 

And  she  that  tarrieth  at  home  divideth  the  spoil " — 

"  Will  ye  lie  among  the  sheepfolds  ?  " 

*The  wings  of  a  dove  covered  with  silver  and  her  pinions  with  yellow  gold"— 

"  When  the  Almighty  scattered  kings  therein, 
It  was  as  when  it  snoweth  in  Zalmon."  — 


154  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Where  in  the  real  history  generations  intervened  between  the  first 
occupation  of  the  eastern  table-lands  and  the  final  conquest  of 
Zion,  in  the  sweep  of  this  ode  the  two  periods  are  brought  to- 
gether, and  the  mountain  of  Bashan  looks  askance  at  the  moun- 
tain God  has  chosen  for  his  abode.  As  a  climax  to  the  history 
Jehovah  ascends  into  the  sanctuary  with  his  thousands  of  chariots 
and  leads  captivity  captive.  Now,  with  a  modification  of  rhythm, 
we  change  from  the  past  to  the  present.  When  God 
has  been  celebrated  as  a  God  of  daily  deliverances 
the  ode  is  found  to  be  picturing  the  actual  procession  of  the 
festal  day  — "  the  goings  of  my  God,  my  king,  into  the  sanctu- 
ary "  :  how  singers,  dancers,  minstrels,  and  the  tribes  march  all 

in  due  order.    Then  we  turn  to  the  future  :  but  this 
38—31 

future  appears  as  a  procession  of  kings  and  peoples, 

symbolically   indicated,  coming   with   tribute  to    the   temple   at 

Jerusalem,  until  distant  Ethiopia  in  the  rear  is  seen  stretching  out 

her  hands  to  God.     Outbursts  of  praise  make  the  final 

climax :   but  even  this  is  an  echo  of  the  Blessing  of 

Moses,  with   its  processional  imagery  of  God  riding  upon  the 

heaven  of  heavens,  to  spread  his  protecting  excellency  over  his 

people  Israel.    ' 

In  a  very  different  way  the  earlier  and  later  types  of  lyric  poetry 
may  be  conceived  to  combine  their  powers  in  the  great  Ode  of  the 
Ode  of  the  Redeemed.  Here  there  is  nothing  of  the  proces- 

Redeemed  sion  or  the  dance ;  and  the  matter  belongs  to  the 

period  of  reflection  on  Divine  providence.  But 
the  primitive  device  of  the  refrain  —  which  we  have  seen  to  be 
the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  Song  of  Miriam,  as  the 
dance  is  the  distinction  of  Deborah's  Song  —  here  appears  in  its 
most  accentuated  form.  I  have  in  a  previous  chapter1  pointed 
out  how  four  strophes  are  bound  together  by  double  refrains,  each 
with  its  appropriate  sequel  verse,  as  they  present  different  types 
of  men  who  suffer,  cry  for  help,  sing  their  deliverance.  But  when 
this  has  been  fully  worked  out  the  movement  of  the  poem  is  not 
i  Above,  page  61. 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  155 

exhausted.  The  structure  entirely  changes ;  the  primitive  device 
of  the  refrain  gives  place  to  the  no  less  primitive  form  of  pendu- 
lum movement.  A  series  of  alternations,  like  the  diminuendo  and 
crescendo  of  the  musician,  present  the  God  of  the  Redeemed  as 
a  God  that  brings  low  and  builds  up  again. 

He  turneth  rivers  into  a  wilderness, 

And  watersprings  into  a  thirsty  ground, 

A  fruitful  land  into  a  salt  desert, 

For  the  wickedness  of  them  that  dwell  therein. 

He  turneth  a  wilderness  into  a  pool  of  water, 

And  a  dry  land  into  watersprings. 

And  there  he  maketh  the  hungry  to  dwell, 

That  they  may  prepare  a  city  of  habitation; 

And  sow  fields,  and  plant  vineyards, 

And  get  them  fruits  of  increase. 

He  blesseth  them  also  so  that  they  are  multiplied  greatly; 

And  he  suffereth  not  their  cattle  to  decrease. 

Again  they  are  minished  and  bowed  down 

Through  oppression,  trouble,  and  sorrow. 

He  poureth  contempt  upon  princes, 

And  causeth  them  to  wander  in  the  waste,  where  there  is  no  way. 

Yet  setteth  he  the  needy  on  high  from  affliction, 
And  maketh  him  families  like  a  flock. 
The  upright  shall  see  it,  and  be  glad; 
And  all  iniquity  shall  stop  her  mouth. 

A  gnomic  couplet  makes  a  final  point  of  rest  for  this  movement, 
and  stamps  the  whole  ode  as  a  contribution  of  wisdom  to  lyric 
poetry. 

I  conclude  this  chapter  with  a  Biblical  Ode  which  reaches  the 
summit  of  lyric  power  by  means  different  from  any  we  have  yet 
seen.  It  is  again  an  Ode  of  Divine  Providence  :  but  its  form  is 
that  of  two  companion  hymns,  which  produce  their  effect  by  sim- 
ply standing  side  by  side.  The  hundred  and  third  and  the  hun- 
dred and  fourth  psalms  are  so  related  that  neither  can  be  fully 
appreciated  unless  it  is  read  in  connection  with  the  other.  The 


156  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

subjects  which  make  the  two  parts  of  the  nineteenth  psalm  are 
here  again  found  in  association :  the  World  within  and  the  World 
companion  Odes:  witnout  are  tne  themes  of  these  companion  poems. 
Psalm  cm,  the  In  the  hundred  and  third  psalm  the  poet,  immedi- 
ately after  the  opening  refrain,  calls  upon  all  that  is 
within  him  to  offer  grateful  praise  ;  and  when  the  benefits  which 
call  for  this  gratitude  are  enumerated  they  are  found  to  be  such 
benefits  as  affect  the  individual,  personal,  spiritual  life. 

Who  forgiveth  all  thine  iniquities; 

Who  healeth  all  thy  diseases; 
Who  redeemeth  thy  life  from  destruction; 

Who  crowneth  thee  with  lovingkindness  and  tender  mercies : 
Who  satisfieth  thy  mouth  with  good  things; 

So  that  thy  youth  is  renewed  like  the  eagle. 

God's  dealings  with  Israel  are  referred  to  only  as  a  revelation  of 
his  ways ;  and  the  revelation  is  of  a  kind  that  the  individual  life 
needs  :  compassion  for  the  erring,  a  mercy  as  high  as  heaven  is 
above  the  earth,  a  father  pitying  his  children,  a  God  knowing 
man's  frame  to  be  but  dust ;  the  revelation  of  a  righteousness 
descending  to  children's  children,  while  individual  lives  of  men 
are  but  the  grass-seed  blown  away  by  the  wind.  Then  for  its 
climax  this  hymn  of  the  spiritual  life  rises  to  spiritual  creatures  : 
angels  that  excel  in  strength,  hosts  of  the  LORD  that  are  ministers 
of  his  pleasure  in  all  places  of  his  dominion. 

The  hundred  and  fourth  psalm  starts  at  once  with  the  external 
universe.  This  is  presented  as  the  tabernacle  in  which  God  dwells  : 
and  Psalm  civ  *ts  tent-p°le  reaches  from  the  waters  that  are  below 
the  World  with-  to  the  waters  that  are  above  the  firmament ;  the 
heavens  are  the  stretched  curtains  of  that  tent ; 
the  winds  are  his  messengers,  and  light  is  but  the  garment  in 
which  he  veils  himself  from  our  gaze.  God  appears  as  the 
Creator  of  this  universe  :  at  a  signal  from  him  the  curtain  of  the 
chaotic  deep  was  withdrawn,  and  the  world  resolved  itself  into 
an  orderly  vicissitude  of  mountain  and  valley  and  stream,  of  fowl 
singing  among  branches  that  overhang  the  waters  where  wild  asses 


THE  BIBLICAL    ODE  157 

quench  their  thirst,  of  earth  sending  up  grass  for  cattle,  and  bread 
that  gives  man  strength,  and  wine  and  oil  to  gladden  his  spirits. 
The  same  Creator  has  ordained  the  seasons  by  which  his  world 
is  governed,  and  his  sun  makes  the  alternation  between  night  in 
which  the  beasts  roam  after  their  prey,  and  day  when  man  can 
go  forth  to  his  work.  When  the  wonders  of  the  sea  have  been 
added  to  the  wonders  of  land,  all  is  ready  for  the  climax  thought : 
The  universe  is  one,  and  God  is  its  soul.  All  creatures  wait  upon 

him. 

Thou  openest  thine  hand, 

They  are  satisfied  with  good; 
Thou  hidest  thy  face, 

They  are  troubled; 
.    .       Thou  gatherest  in  their  breath, 

They  die, 

And  return  to  their  dust; 
Thou  sendest  forth  thy  spirit, 

They  are  created, 

And  thou  renewest  the  face  of  the  ground. 

When  God  has  been  thus  exalted  as  supreme  over  the  world  of 
spirit  within  us,  and  the  world  of  the  universe  without,  even  the 
poetry  of  the  Bible  may  be  said  to  have  reached  its  climax. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SONGS,    ELEGIES,    AND    MEDITATIONS 

THE  Ode,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  the  previous  chapter, 
is  not  a  lyric  type,  but  an  elaboration  of  many  types.  To  analyse 
the  different  forms  exhibited  by  Lyric  Poetry  is  the  work  of  this 
and  the  following  chapter.  A  table  in  Appendix  II  gives  a  formal 
classification,  together  with  the  examples  by  which  it  is  supported  : 
to  this  the  reader  is  referred  for  minute  study,  while  in  these  chap- 
ters the  treatment  is  more  general.  It  will  not  be  expected  that, 
in  so  elastic  a  medium  as  lyric  poetry,  the  various  forms  will  be 
divided  by  hard  and  fast  lines ;  a  particular  poem  may  rightly  be 
designated  under  a  single  type,  when  it  approximates  to  other 
types  in  its  details. 

Occasional  Poetry  has  been  illustrated  in  its  most  elaborate 
form  by  the  Song  of  Deborah  and  other  odes.  In 

Poetry0"3  *^e  case  °^  *ke  Psa^ms>  to  connect  these  with  the 

occasions  that  called  them  forth  usually  involves 

historical  discussions  such  as  are  outside  the  scope  of  the  present 
work.  But  there  are  three  psalms  which  few  will 
hesitate  to  attach  to  the  crisis  of  Sennacherib's 
invasion.  The  marvellous  incident  of  that  critical 

period  is  presented  in  no  obscure  language. 

Psalm  Ixxvi.  5       The  stouthearted  are  spoiled,  they  have  slept  their  sleep; 

and  2  (margin)        And  none  of  the  men  of  might  have  found  their  hands. 
At  thy  rebuke,  O  God  of  Jacob, 
Both  chariot  and  horse  are  cast  into  a  dead  sleep. 

We  see  a  passionate  outburst  of  renewed  love  to  Zion  now  that 

158 


BIBLICAL   SONGS  159 

the  oppression  of  the  siege  is  lifted  from  the  people ;  they  walk 
round  the  city ;   they  count  the  towers  and  bul- 
warks, as  if  to  make  sure  that  all  are  really  safe. 
They  hail  her  as  beautiful  in  elevation,  joy  of  the  whole  world, 
lair  from  which  the  Lion  of  Judah  darts  upon  his  prey ;  the  river 
of  peace  holds  her  in  its  arms  unmoved  while  all  around  is  tossing 
in  tumult.     And  the  abrupt  concentration  to  which 
Hebrew  sentences   lend   themselves   presents  the 
whole  crisis  in  the  fewest  possible  words : 

The  nations  raged,  the  kingdoms  were  moved :       xlvi.  6 
He  uttered  his  voice,  the  earth  melted. 

There  is  an  earlier  occasion  in  Hebrew  history  with  which,  as 
I  have  before  remarked,  much  of  Biblical  poetry  connects  itself. 
This   is   the   inauguration   of  Jerusalem   by  King  .The  inauguration 
David.     It    is  not   difficult  to  read  the  historic  of  Jerusalem 
account  of  the  day  in  the  Book  of  Samuel,  and  fit  n  Samuel  ** 
the  songs  into  their  proper  places. 

And  David  went  and  brought  up  the  ark  of  God  from  the  house  of 
Obed-Edom  into  the  city  of  David  with  joy.  And  it  was  so,  that 
when  they  that  bare  the  ark  of  the  LORD  had  gone  six  paces,  he  sac- 
rificed an  ox  and  a  falling.  And  David  danced  before  the  LORD  with 
all  his  might;  and  David  was  girded  with  a  linen  ephod.  \_Here  comes 
Psalm  xxx.~\  So  David  and  all  the  house  of  Israel  brought  up  the  ark 
of  the  LORD  with  shouting,  and  with  the  sound  of  the  trumpet. 
\_At  the  foot  of  the  ascent  comes  Psalm  xxiv.  z-6  ;  at  the  top,  the  mili- 
tary piece,  Psalm  xxiv.  f-io.  ]  .  .  .  And  they  brought  in  the  ark  of 
the  LORD,  and  set  it  in  its  place,  in  the  midst  of  the  tent  that  David 
had  pitched  for  it :  and  David  offered  burnt  offerings  and  peace  offer- 
ings before  the  LORD.  [Here  comes  Psalm  cxxxii.  ^-9.]  ...  So  all 
the  people  departed  every  one  to  his  house.  Then  David  returned  to 
bless  his  household.  \_Here  comes  Psalm  ci.~\ 

David  commenced  this  festal  day  with  the  utmost  trepidation, 
on  account  of  the  terrible  death  of  Uzzah,  which  had  interrupted 
his  former  attempt  to  bring  the  ark  to  Jerusalem.  The  first  few 
paces  of  the  present  procession  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the 


160  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Divine  ban  is  removed ;  there  is  a  halt  and  an  offering  of  thanks- 
giving, and  a   lyric   hymn  of  joy.     The  thirtieth 

Psalm  xxx  .  ...  .  .... 

psalm,  connected  by  its  traditional  title  with  this 

particular  day,  fits  exactly  into  such  a  situation.  It  breathes  a 
sense  of  escape  from  death ;  it  tells  how  David  in  his  prosperity 
had  felt  himself  a  strong  mountain  that  should  never  be  moved ; 
how  the  Divine  face  was  suddenly  hidden  and  he  was  plunged  in 
trouble  ;  how  he  mourned  and  prayed,  and  now  his  mourning  is 
turned  into  this  dance  of  joy  :  the  weeping  has  but  been  a  guest 
lodging  for  the  night,  but  the  favour  of  God  will  be  a  friend  for  a 
lifetime. 

The  procession  continues,  and  I  have  in  a  former  chapter l  dealt 
with  the  anthem  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  the  summons  to  the 
city  to  receive  the  Lord  of  Hosts.  The  city  is  entered,  and  the 
ark  is  brought  into  the  tabernacle  where  it  was  to  remain  for  a 
time.  Here  fresh  sacrifices  are  offered  ;  and  there  could  be  no 
more  suitable  anthem  to  accompany  such  sacrifices  than  the  earlier 
Psalm  cxxxii.  part2  of  the  hundred  and  thirty-second  psalm.  It 
*-9  recites  David's  passionate  vow  to  enjoy  no  rest 

until  he  had  found  a  tabernacle  for  the  Most  High.  The  verses 
that  follow  seem  a  riddle  until  they  are  explained  by  the  search 
for  the  ark  in  its  temporary  resting-places  amid  the  solitude  of 
the  hill  country.  Then  follow  the  ceremonial  words  : 

Arise,  O  LORD,  into  thy  resting  place; 
Thou,  and  the  ark  of  thy  strength. 

The  proceedings  of  the  day  do  not  yet  terminate.  The  people 
are  dismissed,  but  David  returns  "  to  bless  his  household."  The 

hundred  and  first  psalm  gives  us  just  the  blessing 
Psalm  ci  1  .  J ' 

required  :  a  vow  of  mercy  and  judgment  for  the 

speaker  himself,  for  his  household,  and  for  the  administration  of 
his  kingdom.  The  final  line  which  speaks  of  cutting  off  the  work- 

1  Above,  pages  104-108. 

2  Verses  10-18  are  the  addition  made  for  the  Dedication  Festival  of  Solomon's 
Temple.    - 


BIBLICAL   SONGS  161 

ers  of  iniquity  "  from  the  CITY  OF  THE  LORD  "  comes  with  new 
force  when  we  recollect  that  it  was  only  on  that  day  that  the  old 
fortress  of  the  Jebusites  and  stronghold  of  evil  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  service  of  another  Deity  and  formally  inaugurated  as 
the  City  of  Jehovah. 

In  these  occasional  poems  we  have  to  make  the  distinction 
between  the  simpler  Occasional  Song,  and  the  Occasional  Anthems 
which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Inauguration  of  Jerusalem,  associate 
themselves  with  an  elaborate  ceremony.     These   anthems   are 
properly  classified  among  the  Ritual  Psalms  of  the 
next  chapter.     The  '  Song '  is  the  simplest  of  lyric 
types,  and  the  one  which  is  most  varied  in  its  application.     Next 
to  the  songs  which  celebrate  particular  occasions 

we  may  mention  the  songs  which  celebrate  particu-  |onfs  °?  Themes 

PScLim  11 

lar  themes.     The  second  psalm  is  a  Song  of  the 
Lord's  Anointed  :  while  the  busy  nations  plot  and  rage  Jehovah 
laughs  at  their  schemes,  and  sets  his  King  on  Zion,  giving  him  the 
uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  for  his  possession.    The 

Psalif  ex 

same  theme  is  celebrated  in  the  hundred  and  tenth 
psalm  :  two  brief  oracles  proclaim  a  King,  and  a  Priest  after  the 
order  of  Melchizedek,  and  long  rolling  lyric  verses  triumph  in 
the  glorious  conceptions.     This  universal  or  Messianic  king  is 
very  different  from  the  ruler  of  David's  inheritance,  mourned  for 
in  the  elegiac  ode  which  was  cited  in  the  last  chapter.     Perhaps 
we  may  say  that  a  conception  intermediate  between 
the  two  is  the  theme  of  the  seventy-second  psalm.  • 
At  its  head  we  may  inscribe  the  promise  made  to  David : 

Thy  throne  and  thy  kingdom  shall  be  made  sure  for  ever  before  thee : 
thy  throne  shall  be  established  for  ever. 

The  song  pictures  a  Dynasty  of  Righteousness,  king  and  king's 
son  succeeding  one  another  to  the  end  of  time,  while  abundance 
and  peace  reigns  all  around,  and  remote  nations  bring  their  gifts 
and  obeisance.  The  difference  of  conception  between  the  national 
and  the  universal  kingship  has  a  parallel  in  the  different  concep- 


162  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

tions  of  Zion.    The  Sennacherib  psalms  celebrate  Zion  as  glorious, 
but  with  no  more  than  a  local  glory.     Psalm  eighty- 
seven  makes  Zion  address  herself  as  glorious  mother 
of  nation  after  nation  spiritually  born  of  her,  pictured  as  moving 
in  procession  to  the  spring  of  all  song  and  joy ;  Professor  Cheyne 
has  well  summed  up  the  whole  effect  as  "  the  Church  of  Israel 
expanding  into  the  Church  Universal."     It  may  even  be  said  that 
the  range  of  Biblical  poetry  covers  a  similar  widening  in  the  con- 
ception of  deity  itself.    The  beautiful  hundred  and  fourteenth 
psalm,  noted  in  a  previous  chapter,  celebrates  a  God  whose  sanc- 
tuary was  Judah,  and  Israel  was  his  dominion.     The  Festal  Hymns, 
on  the  other  hand,  find  their  chief  impulse  in  the  celebration  of 
Jehovah  as  king  over  all  nations  and  throughout 
the  whole  earth ;  a  kindred  song  of  Jehovah's  Im- 
movable Throne  seems  to  be  picturing  this  thought  under  natural 

imagery : 

The  floods  have  lifted  up,  O  LORD, 
The  floods  have  lifted  up  their  voice; 
The  floods  lift  up  their  waves. 

Above  the  voices  of  many  waters, 
The  mighty  breakers  of  the  sea, 
The  LORD  on  high  is  mighty. 

Akin  to  Occasional  Poetry,  but  more  general  in  their  terms,  are 
Songs  of  Deiiv-  the  Songs  of  Deliverance  :  already  sufficiently  illus- 
erance  trated  by  the  brilliant  outpouring  of  praise  in  the 

eighteenth  psalm  over  the  mercies  of  a  lifetime.     Still  more  gen- 
eral are  the  Songs  of  Providence.   We  have  already 
of  Providence  .-    ,         .        .  , 

seen  these,  on  the  magnified  scale  of  the  ode,  in 

the  Song  of  the  Redeemed,  and  the  companion  hymns  of  the 
World  Within  and  the  World  Without.  Another  example  is  the 
Deuteronomy  Song  of  Moses  in  Deuteronomy.  The  subject  is 
»xii  announced  in  the  prelude  as  God  the  immovable 

Rock,  in  contrast  with  Israel  unfaithful  and  changeable :  the 
movement  of  the  ode  alternates  between  the  two  ideas.  The  first 
phase  of  the  poem  brings  out  how  the  LORD'S  portion  is  his 


BIBLICAL   SONGS  163 

people,  lingering  on  the  thought  with  images,  first  of  tenderness, 
then  of  immeasurable  bounty.  The  turning-point  comes  as  Jeshu- 
run  waxes  fat  and  kicks,  and  this  second  phase  presents  Israel 
as  provoking  Jehovah  with  new  gods  that  came  up  but  yesterday, 
which  their  fathers  had  not  known.  The  movement  swings  back 
to  the  unswerving  nature  of  God,  now  seen  in  judgments  that 
set  all  nature  on  fire,  and  stop  short  only  of  absolute  destruction. 
Another  turning-point  is  made  as  the  poet  breaks  in  to  cry  out 
at  the  folly  and  blindness  of  the  people,  and  the  loathly  gods  to 
which  they  have  given  the  preference.  By  a  bold  transition  this 
last  description  is  made  to  cause  revulsion  in  the  mind  of  God  him- 
self, who  thinks  with  complacency  on  the  vengeance  he  has  yet 
in  his  storehouse  ;  and  the  poem  reaches  its  final  phase,  in  exhibit- 
ing God  as  using  this  vengeance  on  the  side  of  his  erring  people, 
when  they  have  sunk  to  their  last  extremity.  A  brief  conclusion 
calls  the  nations  to  witness  this  spectacle  of  God  coming  to  the 
rescue  of  his  people. 

Providence  extends  over  external  nature  as  well  as  over  the 
human  realm.  The  twenty-ninth  psalm  is  the 
Song  of  the  Thunderstorm.  The  body  of  the  poem 
has  the  '  Voice  of  Jehovah '  for  its  refrain ;  it  is 
the  realisation  of  a  thunderstorm,  rising  in  the  waters  to  the 
north,  passing  overhead  with  every  form  of  violence,  and  dying 
away  over  the  wilderness  to  the  south,  until  all  nature  has  again 
become  a  hymn  of  praise  to  its  Maker.  In  the  prelude  the 
poet,  as  if  awed  by  the  approaching  manifestation  of  God,  calls 
upon  all  creatures  to  worship.  In  the  close  he  expresses  his 
sense  of  the  protection  that  has  been  with  him  ;  his  God  presided 
over  the  flood  —  not  Noah's  flood,  but  the  flood  from  which  the 
tempest  arose  —  and  he  will  be  king  for  ever.  By  an  exquisite 
touch  of  detail,  the  last  note  in  this  song  of  thunder  is  the  word 
'peace.' 

Where  we  speak  of  '  Providence '  the  Biblical  word  is  'judg- 
ment.'    Songs  of  Judgment  celebrate  the  interposi-  songs  of  judg- 
tion  of  God  in  the  controversy  with  evil.  ment 


164  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Psalm  Ixxv  For  neither  from  the  east  nor  from  the  west  nor  yet  from  the  south 

cometh  lifting  up: 

But  God  is  the  judge,  he  putteth  down  one,  and  lifteth  up  another. 
For  in  the  hand  of  the  LORD  there  is  a  cup,  and  the  wine  foameth; 
It  is  full  of  mixture,  and  he  poureth  out  of  the  same : 
Surely  the  dregs  thereof,  all  the  wicked  of  the  earth  shall  wring 

them  out  and  drink  them. 

Of  such  Divine  judgments  the  faithful  are  the  exultant  spectators  : 

Psalm  lii      The  righteous  also  shall  see  it,  and  fear, 

And  shall  laugh  at  him,  saying : 
Lo,  this  is  the  man  that  made  not  God  his  strength ; 
But  trusted  in  the  abundance  of  his  riches, 
And  strengthened  himself  in  his  wickedness. 

The  same  spirit,  transferred  from  contemplation  of  the  world 
Sonts  of  Trust  without  to  the  inner  life  of  the  faithful,  finds  ex- 
and  Consecration  pression  in  Songs  of  Trust  and  Consecration.  Of 
the  first  a  beautiful  type  is  the  sixty-second  psalm, 
with  its  refrain  of  the  soul  waiting  upon  God,  and  its  gnomic  con- 
clusion : 

God  hath  spoken  once,  twice  have  I  heard  this ; 
That  power  belongeth  unto  God : 
Also  unto  thee,  O  LORD,  belongeth  mercy; 
For  thr>u  renderest  to  every  man  according  to  his  work. 

Supreme  among  the  poems  of  personal  consecration   is  psalm 
sixteen. 

Psalm  xvi    I  have  said  unto  the  LORD,  '  Thou  art  my  Lord, 

I  have  no  good  beyond  thee : ' 
Unto  the  saints  that  are  in  the  earth, 

'  They  are  the  excellent,  in  whom  is  all  my  delight.' 

The  consecration  begets  a  confidence  that,  in  mysterious  terms, 
seems  to  triumph  over  the  grave  itself. 

For  thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  to  Sheol; 

Neither  wilt  thou  suffer  thine  holy  one  to  see  corruption. 
Thou  wilt  shew  me  the  path  of  life  : 

In  thy  presence  is  fulness  of  joy; 

In  thy  right  hand  there  are  pleasures  for  evermore. 


BIBLICAL  SONGS  165 

In  the  Biblical  titles  the  term  Song  is  used  to  cover  a  succes- 
sion of  poems,  varied  in  their  character,  which  The  Song8  of  As_ 
thus  constitute  a  psalter  within  a  psalter.  Fifteen  cents:  Psalms 
psalms  in  succession  have  the  common  title, '  Songs  ° 
of  Ascents ' ;  the  Authorised  Version  renders  it '  Songs  of  Degrees,' 
a  translation  of  the  word  in  the  Vulgate  which  has  by  others  been 
rendered  '  Gradual  Psalms.'  l  The  literal  meaning  of  the  expres- 
sion is  '  Songs  of  the  goings  up.'  What  is  the  significance  of  this 
enigmatic  phrase?  Two  theories  on  this  point  are  worthy  of 
special  consideration.  One  is  conveyed  by  giving  the  poems  the 
title  of '  Pilgrim  Songs  ' ;  that  is,  songs  of  the  Pilgrims  going  up  to 
Jerusalem  for  the  great  feasts.  The  other  connects  them  with  the 
Return  of  the  Captives  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem. 

The  difficulty  of  the  question  is  much  reduced  when  we  recol- 
lect that  the  title,  whatever  its  meaning  may  be,  expresses  the 
purpose  of  the  collection,  not  of  the  composition  of  any  particular 
psalm.  If  we  think  of  our  modern  hymn-books,  we  shall  see  that 
a  phrase  may  be  apposite  as  a  title  for  the  whole  book,  and  yet 
might  have  little  significance  if  applied  to  the  interpretation  of 
single  hymns  in  the  collection.  Keeping  this  consideration  before 
us,  we  may  find  it  not  difficult  to  combine  the  two  theories  men- 
tioned above. 

Some  of  these  Songs  of  Ascents  associate  themselves  readily 
with  the  Captivity  and  Return.  The  singer  of  the  one  hundred 
and  twentieth  psalm  speaks  from  amidst  an  atmosphere  of  turbu- 
lence and  treachery,  and  describes  himself,  either  really  or  figura- 
tively, as  living  in  the  distant  regions  of  Meshech  and  Kedar. 
Psalm  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  seems  to  take  local  colour 
from  some  oriental  empire  :  as  the  eyes  of  slaves  follow  their 
masters  to  anticipate  every  wish,  so  the  poet  would  be  observant 
of  his  God.  The  poem  that  follows  presents  Israel  as  just  escaped 
like  a  bird  out  of  the  snare  of  the  fowler :  if  Jehovah  had  not 

1  Armfield's  Gradual  Psalms  (Hayes)  contains  an  interesting  theory  of  the  title, 
connecting  it  on  the  authority  of  the  Talmud  with  the  part  of  the  Temple  in  which 
these  psalms  would  be  performed. 


166  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

been  on  his  side  the  foe  would  have  swallowed  him  up.     The 

hundred  and  twenty-sixth  psalm  is  peculiar.     It  opens 
cxxvi 

with  the  words  : 

When  the  LORD  turned  again  the  captivity  of  Zion, 
We  were  like  unto  them  that  dream. 

And  yet  at  the  fourth  verse  comes  the  prayer : 

Turn  again  our  captivity,  O  LORD, 
As  the  streams  in  the  South. 

They  that  sow  in  tears 

Shall  reap  in  joy. 

The  simplest  explanation  of  this  is  to  connect  it  with  the  Return 
from  Babylon.  That  return  took  place  in  many  instalments,  sep- 
arated by  long  intervals.  This  psalm  would  seem  to  be  a  hymn 
of  those  remaining  in  exile  when  the  first  migration  had  started  : 
they  exult  in  the  change  of  fortune  which  has  at  last  visited  their 
nation,  and  they  long  for  their  own  share  in  the  happy  deliver- 
ance ;  meanwhile  they  give  themselves  up  to  patience  and  hope. 
The  period  of  the  Exile  fits  well  with  the  hundred  and  twenty- 
ninth  psalm,  which  presents  Israel  as  a  martyr,  and  cries  execration 
upon  those  that  hate  Zion.  And  while  the  De  Profundis  of  the 
following  psalm  gives  expression  to  national  penitence  in  any  age, 
yet  it  could  at  no  time  be  so  appropriate  as  during  the  Captivity. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  hundred  and  twenty-first  psalm,  of  which 
the  keynote  is  "  The  LORD  thy  keeper,"  seems  a  most  appropriate 
marching  hymn  for  the  companies  of  pilgrims  journeying  to  the 
yearly  feasts ;  and  its  opening  words,  "  I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes 
unto  the  hills,"  might  connect  it  with  the  first  sight  of  the  environs 
of  the  sacred  city.  The  psalm  that  follows  would  just  fit  in  with 
the  next  stage  :  "  Our  feet  are  standing  within  thy  gates,  O 
Jerusalem."  The  hundred  and  twenty-fifth  psalm  is  made  up  of 
thoughts  suggested  by  the  sight  of  the  Holy  City :  the  massive 
Mount  Zion  is  a  symbol  of  the  security  of  those  who  trust  in  its 
God  ;  the  mountains  enclosing  Jerusalem  are  like  the  Lord's  pro- 
tection thrown  around  his  people ;  the  territory  so  safely  walled 


BIBLICAL  ELEGIES  AND  MEDITATIONS  167 

in  is  a  pledge  that  the  empire  of  evil  shall  not  invade  the  lot  of 
the  righteous.  Moreover,  these  companies  of  pilgrims  were  family 
parties,  as  an  incident  of  the  New  Testament  reminds  us  :  hence 
the  hundred  and  twenty- seventh  psalm  (cited  elsewhere1),  con- 
trasting the  life  of  busy  care  with  the  peaceful  family  life,  or  the 
next,  which  associates  family  joys  with  the  blessing  out  of  Zion, 
or  the  hundred  and  thirty-first,  which  draws  from  child  life  a  con- 
ception of  personal  and  national  humble-mindedness,  or  again  the 
hundred  and  thirty-third,  which  celebrates  the  unity  of  brethren. 
The  two  poems  of  the  collection  that  have  yet  to  be  mentioned 
connect  themselves  directly  with  the  Temple  :  one  (the  hundred 
and  thirty-second)  is  the  Dedication  hymn  of  David  and  Solomon, 
and  the  other  makes  an  appropriate  close  to  the  collection  in  the 
form  of  a  brief  exchange  of  greetings  between  the  retiring  worship- 
pers and  the  Night  Watch  remaining  on  guard. 

The  psalms,  individually  considered,  then,  suggest  a  twofold 
origin ;  the  combination  of  both  types  in  a  common  collection  is 
not  difficult  to  understand.  Either  the  '  Songs  of  the  goings  up  * 
was  at  first  the  title  for  poems  of  the  Captivity  and  Return,  and 
this  little  psalter  came  to  be  increased  by  the  songs  of  pilgrimages 
to  the  second  Temple ;  or,  more  probably,  the  old  traditionary 
Pilgrim  Songs  made  the  first  collection,  and  its  contents  were 
doubled  by  that  great  pilgrimage  beside  which  all  others  were 
commonplace.  In  any  case  the  '  Songs  of  Ascents '  are  a  series 
of  hymns  impressing  every  reader  with  their  strong  resemblance 
to  one  another ;  and  they  are  the  quintessence  of  all  that  is  most 
attractive,  and  most  unanalysable,  in  sacred  lyrics. 

We  pass  to  a  new  division  of  Lyric  Poetry  in  the  Elegy.  I  have 
already  remarked  how  the  elegy  rests  upon  the  professional  mourn- 
ing ;  and  how  it  has  a  rhythm  of  its  own.  There 

,  The  Elegy 

is  a  curious  parallelism  between  the  Hebrew  rhythm 

of  elegy  and  that  of  Greek  and  Latin  poetry.     The  latter  is  com- 
posed of  the  ordinary  hexameter  followed  by  the  shorter  pentameter. 
1  Above,  page  101. 


168  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

In  Hebrew  the  elegiac  rhythm  is  the  ordinary  couplet  with  the 

second  member  weakened,  by  being  either  short- 
Elegiac  rhythm  ,  ,  r  ,  ..  ... 

ened  or  left  destitute  of  antithesis  or  parallelism,  so 

much  so  that  the  two  are  usually  printed  as  a  single  line  with  a 
caesura. 

He  hath  fenced  me  about  that  I  cannot  go  forth;  he  hath  made  my  chain 
heavy. 

The  difference  of  this  from  the  ordinary  rhythm  is  well  seen  in 
the  transition  from  one  to  the  other  already  cited  as  an  effect  in 
the  English  version  of  Deborah's  Song. 

In  the  days  of  Shamgar  the  son  of  Anath, 

In  the  days  of  Jael, 
The  highways  were  unoccupied, 

And  the  travellers  walked  through  byways; 
The  rulers  ceased  in  Israel, 
They  ceased  — 
Until  that  I,  Deborah,  arose, 

That  I  arose  a  mother  in  Israel. 
They  chose  new  gods; 

Then  was  war  in  the  gates : 
Was  there  a  shield  or  spear  seen 

Among  forty  thousand  in  Israel  ? 

£ut  the  widespread  use  of  this  elegiac  rhythm  in  Biblical  literature 
is  lost  to  the  English  reader,  since  none  of  the  accepted  versions 

keep  it  up  in  their  translation.1  The  loss  is  greatest 
Lamentations  of  ...it.  i  ^i  j  ^  T  ,  *•  j- 

Jeremiah  m  tne  elaborate  elegy  entitled  the  Lamentations  of 

Jeremiah,  which  is  a  highly  artificial  composition 
built  up  on  the  principle  of  elegiac  rhythm  and  a  curious  alpha- 
betical succession  of  verses.  The  great  blot  upon  the  Revised 
Version  of  our  Bible  is  the  absence  of  any  attempt  to  represent 
the  acrostic  structure  which  affects  these  as  so  many  other 
Hebrew  poems.  The  pathos  of  individual  passages  in  the  Lam- 

1  For  a  systematic  treatment  of  the  whole  subject,  see  an  article  by  Karl  Budde 
in  the  New  Review,  March,  1893. 


BIBLICAL  ELEGIES  AND  MEDITATIONS  169 

cntations  is  obvious  enough ;  but  the  literary  form  of  the  whole 
as  it  stands  in  our  English  Versions  is  impossible  of  apprecia- 
tion.1 

There  are  elegies  amongst  the  most  familiar  poems  of  the 
psalter.  One  is  the  song  of  the  captives  weeping  by  the  rivers  of 
Babylon,  hanging  their  harps  upon  the  willows  at  the  thought 
of  singing  the  songs  of  Zion  in  a  strange  land: 

,  Psalm  cxxxvii 

until  the  wail  hardens  into  an  ecstasy  of  hatred  as 

they  long  for  one  who  will  take  the  little  ones  of  the  oppressor 

and  dash  them  against  the  ground.     Another  tells 

Psalm  Ixxiv 
the  evil  done  to  the  sanctuary  by  the  enemy,  how 

they  behaved  as  men  that  lifted  up  axes  upon  a  thicket  of  trees, 
how  the  carved  work  is  broken  down  with  hatchet  and  hammers, 
and  fire  has  converted  the  sacred  pile  into  a  profane  ruin.  An- 
other is  made  distinctive  by  the  sustained  image  of 

Psalm  Ixxx 
the  Vine  brought  out  of  Egypt,  with  nations  cast 

out  to  make  room  for  it ;  it  had  taken  deep  root  until  mountains 
were  covered  by  its  shadow  and  its  branches  reached  to  the 
River  and  the  Sea ;  but  now  its  fences  are  thrown  down,  and  the 
beasts  out  of  the  wood  can  ravage  it,  nay,  it  is  cut  down  and 
burned  with  fire.  And  no  Biblical  elegy  is  more  impressive  than 
the  earliest  of  them  all,  the  lamentation  of  David 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  preserved  by  its  connec- 
tion  with  archery  meetings  founded  in  honour  of 
Jonathan.  The  simple  pathos  of  this  song  is  familiar  to  all.  It  is 
worth  while  also  to  note  the  structural  beauty  of  the  augmenting 
refrain  :  at  the  opening  of  the  elegy  it  is,  How  are  the  mighty 
fallen  ;  when  the  stanzas  special  to  Saul  are  completed  it  has  be- 
come, How  are  the  mighty  fallen  in  the  midst  of  the  battle ;  at  the 
end  of  the  final  section  expressing  the  poet's  tender  love  for 
Jonathan  the  refrain  has  grown  to  a  full  couplet  — 

l  In  The  Psalms  by  Four  Friends,  or  the  abridged  edition  of  it  as  the  Psalter  in 
the  Golden  Treasury  Series  (Macmillan  &  Co.),  the  acrostic  effect  is  maintained 
throughout ;  and  the  Book  of  Lamentation!;  is  given  in  full  (in  the  second  edition  oi 
the  larger  work).  In  the  second  volume  of  Psalms  (Modern  Reader's  Bible)  I  have 
more  tally  discussed  this  remarkable  elegiac  masterpiece. 


170  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

How  are  the  mighty  fallen, 

And  the  weapons  of  war  perished ! 

Songs  celebrate  a  theme :  Meditations  reflect  upon  it.  The 
distinction  may  seem  slight,  yet  it  covers  a  difference  of  lyric 

spirit  that  needs  to  be  represented  in  a  literary 
tions  classification.  Under  this  head  of  Meditations  will 

come,  not  only  the  poem  which  introduces  the 
whole  psalter,  but  also  that  tour-de-force  of  meditative  ingenuity, 

the  hundred  and  nineteenth  psalm.      It  is  made 

up  of  no  less  than  a  hundred  and  seventy-six  say- 
ings disposed  on  an  acrostic  arrangement,  and  bound  together  by 
the  common  feature  that  each  verse  contains  some  synonym  for 
that  which  is  the  topic  of  the  whole  —  the  LAW  OF  THE  LORD.  I 
have  in  previous  chapters  referred  to  the  eighth  psalm  as  a  medi- 
tation on  Man  as  the  Viceroy  of  God,  to  the  nineteenth,  which 
has  for  its  topic  the  Heavens  above  and  the  Law  within ;  and  to 
the  thirty-sixth,  with  its  contrast  of  Evil  Unbounded  and  Infinite 
Psalms  xv,  Good.  Amongst  the  most  popular  of  all  Scriptural 

cxxxi,  xxiii  poems  are  the  meditations  on  the  Consecrated  Life, 

the  Quiet  Soul,  the  Protection  of  Jehovah.  A  pair  of  companion 

poems  seem  clearly  to  be  founded  on  a  couplet 
Psalms  xc,  xci 

from  the  Blessing  of  Moses  in  Deuteronomy :  the 

ninetieth  psalm  breathes  throughout  the  spirit  of  the  line  — 
The  Eternal  God  is  thy  dwelling  place  — 

while  the  psalm  that  follows  is  no  less  clearly  an  expansion  of  the 
thought — 

Underneath  are  the  everlasting  arms. 

This  may  explain  how  tradition  has  come  to  affix  to  the  first  of 
the  two  the  title,  A  Prayer  of  Moses  the  Man  of  God.  Lastly, 
we  may  note  how  that  which  is  a  leading  diffi- 
culty  of  wisdom  literature  is  also  the  subject  of 
three  elaborate  lyric  meditations.  The  Prosperity 
of  the  Wicked  is,  in  the  thirty-seventh  psalm,  treated  in  a  collection 


MODES   OF  LYRIC  DEVELOPMENT  171 

of  gnomic  sayings,  acrostically  arranged.  The  same  topic,  in  the 
forty-ninth  psalm,  appears  as  a  '  parable '  or  '  dark  saying,'  which 
with  strophic  structure  and  varying  refrain  dwells  upon  the  vanity 
of  worldly  splendour  in  the  light  of  inevitable  death.  In  the 
seventy-third  psalm  the  mystery  of  prosperous  wickedness  causes 
the  singer  to  all  but  lose  his  faith :  he  recovers  it  only  when  he 
goes  into  the  sanctuary  of  God. 

It  may  be  permissible  at  this  point  to  digress  from  the  classifi- 
cation of  lyrics,  which  is  the  subject  of  these  two  chapters,  in 
order  briefly  to  discuss  modes  by  which  lyric  thought  is  developed. 
Notable  modes  of  lyric  movement  have  already  been  reviewed  in 
connection  with  the  odes.  The  simpler  poems  resemble  in  their 
development  the  poetry  of  modern  times :  but  a  few  special 
features  may  be  mentioned. 

Imagery  belongs  to  all  kinds  of  lyric  poetry  alike.     One  remark 
may  be  made  as  to  the  use  of  it  by  the  poets  of  the  psalter.     It 
is   characteristic   of  them   to   crowd  their  images   Imageryasa 
together  in  rapid  succession ;  and  such  quick  play  mode  of  lyric  de- 
of  imagery  sometimes  is  made  to  interchange  with  vel°Pment 
the  development  of  a  single  image  in  full  detail.     I  will  give  two 
illustrations  of  such  interchange. 

In  the  opening  verses  of  the  twenty-seventh  psalm  the  images 
are  so  crowded  together  that  there  is  danger  of  our  losing  them 
through  their  very  exuberance.  When  all  the  sug-  Psalm  xxvii  I-6 
gestions  lurking  in  word  and  phrase  are  pressed, 
the  whole  passage  seems  to  call  up  visions  of  danger  chasing  one 
another  as  through  the  changes  of  a  dream.  The  poet  is  desper- 
ately threading  his  way  through  pitchy  blackness,  with  pitfalls  all 
around  him  —  when  a  sudden  light  shines,  and  all  is  clear :  the 
LORD  is  that  light.  He  is  back  again  in  the  thick  of  his  perils, 
he  has  actually  stumbled  —  when  he  is  suddenly  caught  up  and 
supported  :  in  that  salvation  he  sees  the  LORD.  Now  he  is  being 
chased  by  the  foe,  and  they  are  gaining  upon  him  —  when  a 
stronghold  unseen  before  opens  its  gates  to  him  and  he  is  safe : 


172  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

JEHOVAH  is  that  stronghold  of  life,  and  of  whom  in  future  need  he 
be  afraid  ?  The  scene  has  changed  and  the  crowd  of  his  adver- 
saries and  foes,  with  dream-like  horror  taking  the  shape  of  beasts 
of  prey,  are  rushing  upon  him  ;  there  is  no  escape,  and  already  he 
can  see  the  sharp  teeth — when,  lo,  they  stumble  over  hidden  pit 
falls  and  disappear  from  view  : 

When  evil-doers  came  upon  me 

To  eat  up  my  flesh, 
Even  mine  adversaries  and  my  foes, 

They  stumbled  and  fell. 

He  is  now  in  a  solitary  tower  and  countless  hosts  beleaguer  him 
on.  all  sides,  yet  he  feels  no  doubt  or  fear ;  now  an  ambush  of  a 
whole  army  suddenly  rises  out  of  the  ground,  but  he  can  only 
wonder  how  it  comes  that  no  tremor  shakes  him. 

Though  an  host  should  encamp  against  me, 

My  heart  shall  not  fear : 
Though  war  should  rise  against  me, 

Even  then  will  I  be  confident. 

The  various  images  have  flitted  past  us  like  a  succession  of  dream 
changes  as  the  waking  point  is  neared.     And  a  transition  like  that 
from  the  fitful  visions  of  sleep  to  the  steady  light  of  waking  comes 
over  the  psalm  as  the  poet  passes  on  to  the  "one  thing"  he  has 
desired  of  the  Lord  :  this  all-sufficing  aspiration  is  for  a  life-long 
dwelling  in  the  house  of  the  LORD,  in  happy  round  of  meditation 
and  service,  on  a  rock  of  security  far  above  the  disturbance  of 
peril  and  trouble.      This  psalm  then  has  illustrated  the  change 
from  a  rapid  succession  of  images  to  a  single  sustained  metaphor. 
A  similar  transition,  but  in  reverse  order,  marks   the  twenty- 
third  psalm.     This  opens  with  the  peaceful  imagery 
of  pastoral  life  drawn  out  to  its  furthest  detail. 

The  LORD  is  my  shepherd; 
I  shall  not  want. 

He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures : 
He  leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters. 


MODES   OF  LYRIC  DEVELOPMENT  173 

He  restoreth  my  soul : 

He  guideth  me  in  the  paths  of  righteousness  for  his  name's  sake. 

Yea,  though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death, 

I  will  fear  no  evil; 

For  thou  art  with  me : 

Thy  rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me. 

Then  the  break  comes,  and  a  quick  succession  of  varying  images 
passes  before  us.  In  one  line  the  image  is  that  of  a  siege,  and 
the  poet  is  pressed  by  hunger  —  when,  lo,  a  mystic  table  is  before 
him,  and  the  enemy  looks  on  helpless  and  amazed.  In  the  next 
line  he  is  a  festal  guest,  the  sweet  perfume  is  poured  over  him, 
and  the  wine  of  abundance  is  by  his  side.  Again  the  imagery 
changes,  and  he  sees  goodness  and  mercy  following  him  in  his 
journeyings  through  life,  as  the  streams  of  water  followed  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  Once  more  the  thought  changes  to 
the  Temple  :  other  men  may  make  their  occasional  pilgrimages, 
but  he  will  be  a  dweller  in  the  house  of  the  LORD  for  ever. 

An  important  topic  for  the  expository  critic  is  Concealed 
Imagery.  It  is  possible  for  a  metaphorical  idea  to  be.  sustained 
throughout  the  whole  of  a  poem  or  lengthy  passage, 
and  yet  not  to  be  embodied  in  distinct  words ;  the 
image  must  be  collected  from  a  variety  of  indirect 
references,  while  to  miss  it  is  to  lack  the  key  to  the  whole.  The 
regular  prophetic  image,  the  Day  of  the  LORD,  is  not  directly  men- 
tioned in  the  Vision  of  Habakkuk  :  yet  it  is  latent 

Habakkuk  iii 

in  the  way  in  which   the   theophany  approaches 
from  the  east — God  coming  from  Teman  and  the  Holy  One  from 
Mount  Paran,  with  raying  beams  of  dawn  breaking  all  around  — 
and  dies  away  over  the  western  sea : 

Thou  dost  tread  the  sea  with  thine  horses, 
The  surge  of  mighty  waters. 

Again,  the  advance  of  the  mystic  foe  in  Joel  has  locust  imagery 
underlying  every  line  of  it,  yet  the  word  locust  does 
not  occur.     Such  Concealed  Imagery  will  explain 


174  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

some  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  the  Bible.     It  has  been,  for  ex- 
Psaim  iTxri-         ample,  well  suggested  that  the  idea  underlying  the 


eighty-second  psalm  is  that  of  a  hierarchy  of  world- 
rulers,  such  as  the  '  Sons  of  God  '  mentioned  in  the  prologue  to 
Job.  We  see  in  the  latter  poem  how  one  of  them  can  interfere  in 
the  guidance  of  human  events,  always  of  course  with  the  Divine 
permission;  and  the  suggestion  of  the  plural  is  that  there  are 
many.  It  is  supposed  by  Professor  Cheyne  that  a  scene  like  the 
prologue  to  Job  underlies  this  eighty-second  psalm,  the  'gods,' 
*  sons  of  the  Most  High,'  being  such  spiritual  world-rulers  ;  that 
it  is  these,  and  not  earthly  judges,  who  are  the  objects  of  the 
Divine  remonstrance,  and  they  are  held  responsible  for  the  cor- 
ruption of  mankind  which  they  have  failed  to  prevent.  Only 
upon  such  a  supposition  does  the  conclusion  become  intelligible. 

I  said,  Ye  are  gods, 

And  all  of  you  sons  of  the  Most  High  : 
Nevertheless  ye  shall  die  like  men, 

And  fall  like  one  of  the  princes. 

The  supernatural  Powers  who  have  neglected  their  office  are 
threatened  with  degradation  to  the  rank  of  men  with  the  doom 
of  mortality.1 

No  doubt  the  suggestion  of  Concealed  Imagery  is  an  uncertain 
weapon  of  interpretation,  and  one  which  leaves  much  room  for  the 

fancy  of  an  individual  expositor.      It  is  therefore 

Psalm  xc  ..,._..  ,T  ...          r 

with  diffidence  that  I  suggest  the  application  of 

it  to  a  poem  which  is  amongst  the  most  familiar  psalms  of  the 
psalter,  but  which  leaves  on  my  own  mind  an  impression  differ- 
ent from  that  ordinarily  associated  with  it.  To  many  readers 
the  ninetieth  psalm  is  known  as  part  of  the  Service  for  the  Burial 
of  the  Dead  :  it  comes  therefore  to  be  connected  with  thoughts 
of  gloom  and  bereavement.  But  the  language  justifying  that 
use  of  it  is  confined  to  one  part  of  the  psalm  ;  when  the  whole 

1  The  same  image  possibly  underlies  the  fifty-eighth  psalm  (see  marginal  read- 
ings  of  R.V.). 


MODES   OF  LYRIC  DEVELOPMENT  175 

is  studied  it  is  found  to  take  a  wider  range.  If  the  total  play 
of  thought  and  details  of  imagery  in  this  poem  be  put  together, 
the  resultant  appears  to  me  to  fit  in  with  a  Hymn  of  Mountain 
Sunrise.  , 

Let  the  reader  fix  in  his  imagination  the  mountain  scenery  that 
would  surround  one  who  has  made  his  dwelling-place  in  the  deserts 
of  the  Holy  Land.  He  has  awoke  in  the  midst  of  a  dreadful  soli- 
tude, with  the  break  of  day  at  hand.  Monotony  of  rocky  land- 
scape stretches  in  every  direction ;  here  are  heaps  of  shingle  and 
crumbling  dust,  there  deep  clefts  wrapped  in  blackest  shadow; 
the  scantiest  vegetation  may  be  seen  in  the  crannies,  or  shows 
greener  at  the  margin  of  the  torrent  that  rushes  down  by  his 
side.  He  watches  through  the  last  phase  of  the  night,  and  feels 
the  solemn  mystery  attaching  to  these  impalpable  changes  of  time, 
and  the  passage  of  day  into  day.  The  sun  rises,  and  the  stony 
desert  becomes  a  mirror  to  reflect  its  brilliance;  soon  the  light 
has  penetrated  to  the  lowest  depth  of  every  cleft,  and  the  land- 
scape glows  like  a  furnace ;  the  grass  by  the  torrent's  side,  which 
had  bloomed  for  a  moment  in  the  morning  freshness,  has  already 
begun  to  droop  and  wither.  But  the  dominant  sensation  is  still 
the  unbroken  solitude  of  his  mountain  dwelling,  which  has  thus 
watched  day  pass  into  day  without  change  since  the  very  founda- 
tion of  the  world.  Suddenly  his  thoughts  rise  to  a  higher  plane 
m  the  contemplation  of  a  vaster  changelessness,  which  has  been 
a  home  for  Israel,  and  has  endured  through  a  succession,  not  of 
day  into  day  nor  generation  into  generation,  but  of  everlasting 
into  everlasting. 

Lord,  thou  hast  been  our  dwelling  place 
In  all  generations. 

Before  the  mountains  were  brought  forth, 
Or  ever  thou  hadst  formed  the  earth  and  the  world, 
Even  from  everlasting  to  everlasting,  thou  art  God. 

It  is  an  eternity  like  this  that  makes  divisions  of  time  and  succes- 
sion of  human  generations  appear  so  feeble  ;  the  thought  of  them 


176  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

can  find  vent  only  in  a  chain  of  images  drawn  from  all  that  is 

around  the  poet.  God  turns  man  "into  crumbling 
verse  3  (margin) 

dust,"  like  the  debris  he  sees  before  him ;  a  thou- 
sand years  in  his  sight  are  but  "as  yesterday  when  it  passeth"  into 

to-day,  as  the  watch  of  the  night  he  had  felt  so 
verse  4  (margin) 

brief;  the  generations  of  men  rush  past  like  this 

torrent  flood  by  his  side ;  they  drop  as  lightly  as  sleep  fell  from 

him  when  the  dawn  awoke  him ;  they  are  like  the  grass  beside  the 

torrent  flood,  which  he  had  just  seen  bloom  in  the 

morning's  freshness,  and  which  is  already  withering 

in  the  glare  of  the  day.     Verily  the  Divine  anger  is  a  scorching 

sun  which  lays  bare  all  iniquity,  which  pours  light  upon  the  most 

secret  sins  as  this  sun's  rays  are  illuminating  the 
verses  7-8 

deep  clefts  that  were  so  dark  in  the  shadows  of 

morning.  And  under  wrath  like  this  the  "  days  of  our  years  "  are 
being  brought  to  an  end  —  "like  a  tale  that  is  told."  This  strik- 
ing phrase  has  been  traditionally  understood  as  comparing  human 
life  to  a  story,  —  in  itself  an  exquisite  idea.  But,  in  the  absence 
of  any  indication  from  the  original  (for  the  Hebrew  word  is 
obscure),  surely  the  context  obliges  us  to  understand  the  other 
sense  of  the  word  '  tale  ' :  the  years  pass  as  swiftly  as  if  they  were 
but  being  counted  —  one,  two,  three,  four,  ...  up  to  seventy ; 
or  if  it  be  eighty,  yet  the  ten  years  so  proudly  achieved  are  ten 
years  of  labour  and  sorrow.  But  this  meditation  on  swiftly  passing 
years  is  suddenly  brought  to  a  noble  climax  : 

So  teach  us  to  number  our  days, 

That  we  may  get  us  an  heart  of  wisdom. 

Now  the  whole  spirit  of  the  psalm  changes,  and  another  class  of 
associations  come  to  the  front :  the  freshness  of  morning,  and  its 
irresistible  suggestion  of  repentance  and  a  new  start,  of  casting 
trouble  and  affliction  behind  like  the  night  that  is  past,  and  look- 
ing to  the  future  as  a  day  of  glory. 

Return,  O  LORD;  how  long? 

And  let  it  repent  thee  concerning  thy  servants. 


MODES  OF  LYRIC  DEVELOPMENT  177 

O  satisfy  us  in  the  morning  with  thy  mercy; 

That  we  may  rejoice  and  be  glad  all  our  days. 
Make  us  glad  according  to  the  days  wherein  thou  hast  afflicted  us, 

And  the  years  wherein  we  have  seen  evil. 

The  thought  is  carried  forward  with  the  concealed  image  of  sun- 
rise and  day  beneath  it.  The  work  which  God  works  for  his 
people  shall  "  appear  "  —  like  the  sun  mounting  above  the  hori- 
zon, and  so  "the  beauty  of  the  LORD  their  God  shall  be  upon 
them."  And  a  final  association  with  morning  —  the  zest  for  work 
it  brings  —  closes  the  psalm  : 

Establish  thou  the  work  of  our  hands  upon  us; 
Yea,  the  work  of  our  hands,  establish  thou  it. 

The  psalm  is  thus  seen  to  be  made  up  of  three  sections.  The 
last  gives  a  prominent  place  to  the  phrase  "  in  the  morning,"  and 
is  filled  with  morning  thoughts  of  repentance,  of  change  from  a 
dark  past  to  a  bright  future,  of  beauty  shed  upon  God's  people 
from  above,  of  security  for  the  work  of  the  hands.  The  middle 
section  has  the  one  thought  of  succession — succession  of  days, 
of  generations ;  and  this  is  in  one  verse  expressly  associated  with 
the  image  of  yesterday  passing  into  to-day.  Through  both  these 
sections,  then,  the  idea  of  morning  is  present.  The  first  section 
brings  forward  mountains  and  the  framework  of  earth  as  enduring 
things  to  be  contrasted  with  the  greater  eternity  of  their  Creator ; 
while  all  the  images  used  are  such  as  would  form  part  of  a  moun- 
tain landscape.  When  the  whole  poem  is  put  together,  then,  it 
will  seem  that,  while  its  subject  is  '  Life  as  a  passing  Day,'  the 
setting  of  the  thought  is  the  concealed  imagery  of  a  mountain 
sunrise. 

Among  the  many  varieties  of  imagery  there  is  one  which  is 
of  special  importance  in  Biblical  poetry  from  its  bearing  upon 

questions  of  interpretation.     I  would  term  it  Meta- 

Metapbor  Direct 
phor  Direct.     A  metaphor  has  been  well  described 

as  a  condensed  simile  :  whereas  a  simile  uses  a  distinct  symbol 
(like,  as)  to  indicate  that  there  is  a  comparison  of  ideas,  the 


178  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

metaphor  insinuates  the  words  containing  the  image  into  the 
framework  of  the  sentence.  It  is  a  simile  to  say  — 

Like  as  a  father  pitieth  his  children, 
So  the  LORD  pitieth  them  that  fear  him. 

For  the  same  comparison  in  the  form  of  a  metaphor  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  speak  of  '  God's  fatherly  pity  for  his  servants,'  or,  '  the 
pity  of  the  Divine  father.'  It  is  obvious  that  this  interweaving 
of  an  image  in  the  framework  of  a  sentence  may  be  done  in  many 
different  ways ;  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  some  modifi- 
cations of  an  expression  may  be  such  that  the  metaphorical  ele- 
ment may  have  the  appearance  of  direct  speech.  This  is  what 
I  am  calling  Metaphor  Direct.  I  believe  there  are  many  places 
in  the  Book  of  Psalms  where  the  interpretation  of  a  whole  passage 
turns  upon  the  question  whether  particular  words  are  to  be  read 
literally  or  as  this  direct  metaphor  :  I  will  be  content  with  a  single 
illustration  taken  from  the  eighty-fourth  psalm.1 

Psalm  Ixxxiv    Yea,  the  sparrow  hath  found  her  an  house, 

And  the  swallow  a  nest  for  herself,  where  she  may  lay  her  young, 
Even  thine  altars,  O  LORD  of  hosts,  rny  King  and  my  God. 

This  has  been  commonly  read  as  direct  statement,  and  not  meta- 
phor. With  the  usual  tendency  to  go  first  to  historical  surround- 
ings for  interpretation,  commentators  have  seen  in  these  words 
a  temple  in  ruins,  and  birds  flying  about  what  once  was  an  altar 
of  God ;  or  other  interpreters  have  thought  they  could  discover 
in  the  singer  one  brought  up  in  temple  precincts,  accustomed  to 
mark  the  birds  that  flit  round  the  sacred  edifice.  The  first  sug- 
gestion is  wholly  out  of  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  the  poem,  which 
is  one  of  joyous  celebration.  The  second  is  a  loose  explanation, 
which  ignores  the  great  difference  between  birds  flitting  about 
cathedral  towers,  and  the  same  birds  building  their  nests  on  the 

1  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  Direct  Metaphor  see  the  first  volume  of  Psalms  in 
the  Modern  Reader's  Bible,  page  168.  An  important  illustration  outside  the  Psalms 
is  in  Habakkuk  ii.  The  Divine  solution  of  the  prophet's  mystery  is  conveyed  in  the 
comparison  of  the  Chaldean's  career  to  the  drunkard's  reeling  (see  below,  page  406): 
this  is  contained  in  the  direct  metaphor :  Wine  is  a  treacherous  dealer,  etc. 


MODES   OF  LYRIC  DEVELOPMENT  179 

altar  itself.  Surely  the  true  explanation  is  to  understand  a  meta- 
phor. The  psalmist  is  himself  the  sparrow  who  has  found  a  house  ; 
or,  to  lay  out  the  imagery  at  full  length :  Like  birds  finding  in  spring 
their  nesting  places,  so  the  sacred  seasons  of  the  pilgrimages  bring 
me  to  the  altars  of  God.  With  this  delicate  image  the  whole  poem 
is  in  tune  :  it  is  a  cluster  of  thoughts  raised  in  the  mind  of  a  pious 
Israelite  by  the  sacred  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem.  As  the  season 
of  the  feasts  comes  round,  body  and  soul  seem  filled  with  a  yearn- 
ing after  the  courts  of  the  LORD  ;  the  mystic  force  which  in  spring 
leads  the  swallow  to  seek  a  nest  for  her  young  becomes  to  the 
worshipper  the  attraction  that  draws  him  towards  his  true  home 
beside  the  altars  of  his  God.  Happiest  they  whose  employment, 
however  lowly,  keeps  them  all  the  year  round  in  the  Temple  ser- 
vice. Next  happy  are  those  whose  one  passion  in  life  are  the 
sacred  pilgrimages :  the  road  to  Zion  runs  through  their  heart. 
Imagination  dwells  on  the  happy  journeys ;  on  the  lonely  spots 
of  the  route  converted  into  gaiety  by  the  throng  of  travellers,  like 
a  desert's  momentary  flourishing  beneath  the  brief  spring  showers  ; 
on  the  climbing  of  height  after  height,  each  a  stage  nearer  the 
sacred  goal ;  on  Mount  Zion  itself,  and  the  anointed  people  bow- 
ing before  its  God  and  Shield,  and  feeling  streams  of  grace  and 
glory  descend.  A  day  in  God's  courts  is  better  than  a  thousand 
days  of  life's  routine. 

One  more  mode  of  developing  thought  in  lyric  poetry  may  be 
mentioned,  the  simplest  of  all :  that  of  Contrast,  contrast  as  a 
Previous   chapters   have   alluded   to   the   contrast  mode  of  deveiop- 
of  the  Heavens  above  and  the  Law  within  which 
makes  the  subject  of  the  nineteenth  psalm  ;    and  again  to  the 
Supreme  Evil  and  the  Supreme  Good  which  stand  contrasted  in 
the  thirty-sixth.     But  it  seems  specially  appropriate  in  this  work, 
and  at  this  point  of  it,  to  mention  the  first  psalm,  which  stands 

as  preface  to  the  whole  lyrical  poetry  of  Scripture. 

Ti     1  u  Psalm  * 

It  celebrates  the  man  — 

Whose  delight  is  in  the  Law  of  the  LORD  : 

And  in  his  Law  doth  he  meditate  day  and  night. 


180  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

No  one  will  understand  the  word  'Law'  in  its  narrow  modern 
sense ;  when  fully  weighed,  the  expression  '  the  Law  of  the  LORD  ' 
will  seem  not  very  different  from  what  is  conveyed  to  a  modern 
ear  by  the  term  'Sacred  Scriptures.'  The  first  psalm  may  be 
said  to  bestow  a  blessing  on  the  literary  study  of  the  Bible.  The 
thought  of  this  prefatory  psalm  is  worked  out  by  Contrast.  The 
theme  is  stated  in  the  form  of  a  contrast ;  the  Meditative  Life  is 
made  antithetical  to  another  type  of  life,  not  necessarily  vicious, 
but  one  that  looks  in  other  directions  than  the  Law  of  the  LORD 
for  the  counsels  by  which  it  shall  walk  :  — in  modern  phraseology, 
the  Worldly  Life.  This  double  theme  is  illustrated  by  an  exqui- 
site piece  of  contrasted  imagery.  The  Worldly  Life  is  compared 
to  "  the  Chaff  which  the  wind  driveth  away  "  :  airy,  not  ungrace- 
ful motion  of  that  which  is  mere  outside  without  substance,  carried 
round  by  forces  from  without.  Over  against  this  is  set  the  rooted 
Tree,  drawing  perpetual  sustenance  from  the  water  streams,  mov- 
ing harmoniously  through  its  season  of  leafage  and  fruit.  Then 
the  contrast  is  carried  forward  to  that  which  is  the  .dominant 
thought  of  Biblical  poetry  — '  the  judgment.'  There  is  no  de- 
nunciation or  detailed  prophecy ;  but  the  psalmist  is  assured  that 
the  empty  life  "  shall  not  stand  in  the  judgment."  And  on  the 
other  hand,  no  particular  blessing  is  invoked  upon  "  the  way  of 
the  righteous  "  :  it  is  enough  that  "  the  LORD  knoweth  it." 


CHAPTER  VII 

MONODIES,    DRAMATIC    LYRICS,    AND    RITUAL    PSALMS 

AMONG  the  psalms  thus  far  reviewed  several  take  the  form  of 
monologue.  The  eighteenth  psalm  celebrates  the  deliverances  of 
David,  the  twenty-third  sings  the  protection  of  Jehovah,  the  six- 
teenth gives  expression  to  the  spirit  of  consecration,  all  in  the  first 
person.  But  in  cases  like  these  the  monologue  form  is  only  acci- 
dental ;  in  the  psalms  next  to  be  considered  it  is 
the  essence  of  the  whole  poem.  They  are  psalms 
founded  on  special  experience :  sometimes  the 
experience  is  narrated,  sometimes  it  is  even  presented  with  the 
realistic  power  that  belongs  to  drama. 

Among  the  monodies  of  experience  psalms  thirty-two  and  forty- 
one  are  found  to  have  a  closely  similar  structure. 
Both  open  with  a  blessing,  —  on  the  forgiven  soul, 
on  the  man  that  has  consideration  for  the  poor; 
both  go  on  to  describe  woeful  distress  into  which  the  speaker  was 
plunged,  and  how  in  the  one  case  forgiveness  brought  healing,  in 
the  other  case  even  in  his  sin  and  suffering  the  psalmist  was  for- 
given for  the  general  integrity  of  his  life.     A  large 
class  of  psalms  is  reached  where  the  experience  in- 
spires prayers  and  supplications.     Early  in  the  psalter  we  have  as 
companion  poems  a  morning  and  evening  prayer. 
The  poet  at  eventide  addresses  himself  to  prayer 
in  memory  of  the  past ;  he  takes  sides  with  God  against  the  men 
of  vanity : 

O  ye  sons  of  men,  how  long  shall  my  glory  be  turned  into  dishonour? 

How  long  will  ye  love  vanity,  and  seek  after  falsehood? 
But  know  that  the  LORD  hath  set  apart  him  that  is  godly  for  himself: 
The  LORD  will  hear  when  I  call  unto  him. 


182  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

He  would  purify  his  heart  with  silent  devotion,  expressed  in 
ordered  sacrifice : 

Stand  in  awe,  and  sin  not : 

Commune  with  your  own  heart  upon  your  bed,  and  be  still. 
Offer  the  sacrifices  of  righteousness, 

And  put  your  trust  in  the  LORD. 

With  this  the  depression  of  night  calms  into  joyful  trust.  Morn- 
ing brings  energy  for  renewing  the  struggle  of  life  :  to  the  Biblical 
poet  this  struggle  of  life  embodies  itself  in  a  contest  with  visible 
foes,  and  in  this  sense  devotion  takes  sides  with  God  and  prays 
for  the  overthrow  of  the  evil. 

For  thou  art  not  a  God  that  hath  pleasure  in  wickedness : 

Evil  shall  not  sojourn  with  thee. 
The  arrogant  shall  not  stand  in  thy  sight : 

Thou  hatest  all  workers  of  iniquity. 
Thou  shalt  destroy  them  that  speak  lies  : 

The  LORD  abhorreth  the  bloodthirsty  and  deceitful  man. 
But  as  for  me,  in  the  multitude  of  thy  lovingkindness  will  I  come  into  thy  house : 

In  thy  fear  will  I  worship  toward  thy  holy  temple. 

Other  prayers  will  be  founded  on  counsels  of  sorrow,  or  craving 
Psalms  xiii,  xvii,  f°r  tne  vindication  of  the  right,  or  searchings  of 
"vi.  u  heart  before  worship.  And  the  fifty-first  psalm  is 

the  cry  of  a  sin-stricken  conscience. 

Psalms  of  this  type,  without  the  alteration  of  a  single  word, 

remain  the  vehicle  of  the  most  modern  devotion.      There  are 

however  supplicatory  poems  in  which  a  discordant 

Imprecatory  , 

Psalms  element  appears  :    the  imprecatory  passages  that 

occur  in  several  of  the  psalms  are  a  difficulty  with 
many  readers,  who  feel  that  such  violence  of  passion  is  out  of 
harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  psalter  as  a  whole. 

Psalms  xxxv,  cix     Let  them  be  as  chaff  before  the  wind, 

And  the  angel  of  the  LORD  driving  them  on. 
Let  their  way  be  dark  and  slippery, 

And  the  angel  of  the  LORD  pursuing  them. 


LYRICAL  MONODIES  183 

But  for  this,  and  for  the  much  more  extended  imprecation  of  the 
hundred  and  ninth  psalm,  an  important  principle  of  interpretation 
is  found  in  the  different  attitude  of  ancient  and  modern  literature 
to  abstract  and  concrete.  We  in  modern  times  are  quite  accus- 
tomed to  feel  enthusiasm  for  the  abstract  thing  we  call  '  a  cause  ' ; 
with  the  ancient  world  it  was  necessary  for  the  cause  to  be  em- 
bodied in  a  concrete  party,  if  it  was  to  win  devotion  or  the  reverse. 
Though  this  principle  has  less  application  in  Biblical  than  in  other 
literatures  of  antiquity,  yet  it  obtains  there  to  some  extent.  When 
the  psalmist's  hatred  of  evil  men  has  once  been  translated  into  the 
form  of  hatred  against  evil,  it  will  be  felt  that  the 
passages  cannot  be  too  strongly  worded.  Another 
consideration  may  be  mentioned,  though  it  is  not  to  be  pressed. 
When  the  representative  poems  of  this  type  are  examined  in 
their  structure,  they  have  a  suggestion  of  liturgical  character  in 
the  combination  of  tones  they  successively  exhibit. 

,  .         ..         ,.  „      .  Psalm  xxxv 

Psalm  thirty-five  falls  into  three  lengthy  stanzas : 
in  each  stanza  there  is  an  interchange  of  prayer,  denunciation,  and 
vows.  In  other  cases  there  will  be  a  combination  of  humble 
prayer  with  fierce  execration.  Such  mixture  of  moods  brings  these 
imprecatory  psalms  near  to  the  type  of  liturgy  we  shall  presently 
have  to  consider.  They  are  not  Archilochian  iambs  of  private 
hate,  but  litanies  of  public  denunciation. 

In  this  connection  there  arises  an  important  question  of  inter- 
pretation, of  wide  application  in  Biblical  poetry.     Monodies  of 
experience  are  given  us  in  the  first  person  :  who  is  The  personaijty 
the  '  I '  that  speaks  ?  and  whom  therefore  are  we  to  represented  in 
picture  as  passing  through  the  experience  ?     Popu-  s 
lar  interpretation  has  undergone  a  great  change  on  this  subject. 
The  earlier  commentators,  following  the  uncertain  guidance  of 
traditional  titles,  searched  the  records  of  David's  life,  to  find  iden- 
tifications with  details  of  the  psalms.    Modern  interpretation  tends 
to  eliminate,  not   David  only,  but  all  personal  speakers,  and  to 
make  the  community  of  Israel  the  hero  of  the  psalms.     Of  course, 
the  discussion  of  each  poem  must  stand  on  its  merits :  we  have 


184  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

already  recognised  both  Davidic  and  national  psalms.  But,  so  far 
as  we  can  speak  generally  on  this  subject,  I  would — here,  as 
everywhere  —  deprecate  the  tendency  to  swamp  literary  in  his- 
toric interpretation.  Neither  David,  nor  Israel,  nor  any  historical 
personage,  is  the  hero  of  the  great  mass  of  the  psalter,  but  an 
ideal  sufferer  of  an  idealised  experience.  Throughout  the  history 
of  poetry  the  poet  has  been  at  war  with  the  particularising  ten- 
dencies of  prosaic  interpreters :  he  creating  general  conceptions, 
which  multitudes  of  his  readers  delight  to  dwarf  into  individual 
allusions.  In  the  psalms  under  discussion  the  generalising  ten- 
dency of  the  poetry  is  specially  prominent.  In  nearly  all  of  them 
the  imagery  combines  at  one  and  the  same  time  external  trouble 
of  foes  and  internal  distress  of  sickness  and  suffering.  The  mar- 
tyr of  the  twenty-second  psalm  now  paints  vividly 
the  enemy  surrounding  him  : 

Many  bulls  have  compassed  me : 

Strong  bulls  of  Bashan  have  beset  me  round. 

They  gape  upon  me  with  their  mouth, 
As  a  ravening  and  a  roaring  lion. 

No  less  vivid  in  the  next  line  comes  the  picture  of  bodily  collapse : 

I  am  poured  out  like  water, 

And  all  my  bones  are  out  of  joint ; 
My  heart  is  like  wax;   it  is  melted  in  the  midst  of  my  bowels; 

My  strength  is  dried  up  like  a  potsherd; 
And  my  tongue  cleaveth  to  my  jaws; 

And  thou  hast  brought  me  into  the  dust  of  death. 

Again  the  trouble  becomes  external : 

For  dogs  have  compassed  me : 

The  assembly  of  evil-doers  have  inclosed  ine; 
They  pierced  my  hands  and  my  feet. 

External  changes  to  internal : 
I  may  tell  all  my  bones. 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  185 

In  a  single  line  there  comes  a  reversion  to  what  is  external : 

They  look  and  stare  upon  me; 
They  part  my  garments  among  them, 

And  upon  my  vesture  do  they  cast  lots. 

One  who  seeks  to  fit  into  historic  circumstances  such  entangling 
of  external  and  internal  imagery  degrades  interpretation  to  the 
level  of  puzzle-guessing.  It  is  only  rarely  that  the  language  of  a 
psalm  contains  sufficient  evidence  to  identify  the  occasion  of  its 
composition.  And  the  poetry  is  the  richer  for  this  reticence. 
To  tie  a  verse  to  an  individual  experience  is  usually  to  destroy  its 
suggestive  association  with  a  hundred  experiences  of  a  similar 
type.  It  is  just  by  keeping  at  a  distance  from  a  positive  incident 
of  life  that  poetry  has  the  high  prerogative  of  securing  the  ideal 
expression  in  which  that  and  all  kindred  incidents  see  themselves 
reflected.  Idealism  is  realism  universalised  :  interpretation  of 
the  psalter  in  this  spirit  will  unite  David's  experience  and  Israel's 
on  a  common  ground,  and  blend  with  these  the  experience  of  the 
modern  reader  and  his  successors  to  all  time. 

An  important  division  of  poetry  opens  before  us  as  we  see 
these  monodies  of  experience  developing  into  a  complete  dra- 
matic form.  The  simplest  way  of  making  clear  this 
development  will  be  to  put  side  by  side  certain 
poems  exhibiting  different  stages  of  advance  from 
lyric  to  drama.  Let  the  reader  first  compare  carefully  psalms 
seventy-seven  and  one  hundred  and  forty-three.  The  situation  in 
the  two  is  identical :  a  sufferer  seeks  to  gain  fortitude  in  his  trouble 
by  meditating  on  the  wonderful  doings  of  God.  And  to  some 
extent  the  matter  of  one  psalm  echoes  that  of  the  other :  in  par- 
ticular, where  one  poem  simply  speaks  of  finding  comfort  in  old 
memories  the  other  recites  these  memories  at  full  length.  As 
regards  the  form,  however,  in  which  the  thoughts  are  conveyed  to 
us,  the  two  poems  will  be  found  to  represent  different  degrees  of 
proximity  to  dramatic  presentation. 


186 


LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


Monody 
mingling  de- 
scription with 
presentation 


PSALM   LXXVII 

I  will  cry  unto  God  with  my  voice; 

Even  unto  God  with  my  voice,  and  he  will  give  ear  unto  me. 
In  the  day  of  my  trouble  I  sought  the  Lord : 

My  hand  was  stretched  out  in  the  night,  and  slacked  not; 

My  soul  refused  to  be  comforted. 
I  remember  God,  and  am  disquieted  : 

I  complain,  and  my  spirit  is  overwhelmed. 

Thou  boldest  mine  eyes  watching : 

I  am  so  troubled  that  I  cannot  speak. 
I  have  considered  the  days  of  old, 

The  years  of  ancient  times. 
I  call  to  remembrance  my  song  in  the  night : 

I  commune  with  mine  own  heart; 

And  my  spirit  made  diligent  search. 

"Will  the  Lord  cast  off  for  ever? 

And  will  he  be  favourable  no  more? 
Is  his  mercy  clean  gone  for  ever? 

Doth  his  promise  fail  for  evermore? 
Hath  God  forgotten  to  be  gracious? 

Hath  he  in  anger  shut  up  his  tender  mercies?" 

And  I  said,  "  This  is  my  infirmity  — 

That  the  right  hand  of  the  Most  High  doth  change ! 
I  will  make  mention  of  the  deeds  of  the  LORD; 

For  I  will  remember  thy  wonders  of  old. 
I  will  meditate  also  upon  all  thy  work, 

And  muse  on  thy  doings. 

"  Thy  way,  O  God,  is  in  holiness : 

Who  is  a  great  god  like  unto  God  ? 
Thou  art  the  God  that  doest  wonders : 

Thou  hast  made  known  thy  strength  among  the  peoples. 
Thou  hast  with  thine  arm  redeemed  thy  people, 

The  sons  of  Jacob  and  Joseph. 

"  The  waters  saw  thee,  O  God; 

The  waters  saw  thee,  they  were  afraid : 
The  depths  also  trembled. 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  187 

The  clouds  poured  out  water; 

The  skies  sent  out  a  sound : 
Thine  arrows  also  went  abroad : 

The  voice  of  thy  thunder  was  in  the  whirlwind; 

"  The  lightnings  lightened  the  world : 

The  earth  trembled  and  shook. 
Thy  way  was  in  the  sea, 
And  thy  paths  in  the  great  waters, 

And  thy  footsteps  were  not  known. 
Thou  leddest  thy  people  like  a  flock, 

By  the  hand  of  Moses  and  Aaron." 

This  poem  so  far  resembles  drama  that  it  is  a  monody  :  instead  of 
an  author  speaking,  about  some  one  else,  we  have  the  actual  sub- 
ject of  the  experience  speaking  in  his  own  person.  But  with  this 
dramatic  element  mingles  a  great  deal  of  the  description  that 
belongs  to  epic ;  the  sufferer  narrates  how  he  was  troubled,  and 
how  he  set  himself  to  think ;  though  the  actual  words  of  his  think- 
ing are  given,  yet  they  are  prefaced  by  the  formula  Monody  pregent_ 
"And  I  said — ."  In  the  next  illustration  all  such  ing  a  single  dra- 
narration  disappears,  and  the  situation  is  brought  matic  8ituation 
out  in  the  cries  and  other  utterances  that  made  a  part  of  it ;  we 
have  a  present  experience,  and  not  a  narration  of  something  that 

is  past. 

PSALM  CXLIII 

Hear  my  prayer,  O  LORD  ;  give  ear  to  my  supplications : 
In  thy  faithfulness  answer  me,  and  in  thy  righteousness. 

And  enter  not  into  judgement  with  thy  servant; 

For  in  thy  sight  shall  no  man  living  be  justified. 

For  the  enemy  hath  persecuted  my  soul ;   he  hath  smitten  my  life  down 

to  the  ground : 
He  hath  made  me  to  dwell  in  dark  places,  as  those  that  have  been  long  dead. 

Therefore  is  my  spirit  overwhelmed  within  me; 

My  heart  within  me  is  desolate. 

I  remember  the  days  of  old;   I  meditate  on  all  thy  doings: 

I  muse  on  the  works  of  thy  hands ;  I  spread  forth  my  hands  unto  thee : 

My  soul  thirsteth  after  thee,  as  a  weary  land. 

Make  haste  to  answer  me,  O  LORD;   my  spirit  faileth. 


188  LYRIC  POETRY   OF  THE  BIBLE 

Hide  not  thy  face  from  me ; 

Lest  I  become  like  them  that  go  down  into  the  pit. 
Cause  me  to  hear  thy  lovingkindness  in  the  morning; 

For  in  thee  do  I  trust. 

Cause  me  to  know  the  way  wherein  I  should  walk; 

For  I  lift  up  my  soul  unto  thee. 
Deliver  me,  O  LORD,  from  mine  enemies : 

I  flee  unto  thee  to  hide  me. 

Teach  me  to  do  thy  will; 

For  thou  art  my  God : 
Let  thy  good  spirit  lead  me  in  the  land  of  uprightness; 

Quicken  me,  O  LORD,  for  thy  name's  sake. 

In  thy  righteousness  bring  my  soul  out  of  trouble  : 
And  in  thy  lovingkindness  cut  off  mine  enemies, 
And  destroy  all  them  that  afflict  my  soul; 

For  I  am  thy  servant. 

Here  then  we  have  pure  presentation  of  an  experience ;  there  is 
no  element  of  the  poem  that  is  not  dramatic.  Yet  it  is  not  drama 
but  only  a  dramatic  situation ;  to  make  it  complete  drama  would 

necessitate  a  change  from  one  situation  to  a  differ- 
Complete 

Dramatic  Lyric  ent  one,  which  is  the  essence  of  dramatic  movement 
(change  of  situa-  an(j  piot  Thjs  requisite  is  supplied  in  the  case  of 

the  sixth  psalm,  in  which  again  we  hear  a  sufferer 
complaining  and  praying,  but  before  the  psalm  ends  deliverance 
has  come,  and  complaint  is  converted  into  rejoicing. 


PSALM  VI 

O  LORD,  rebuke  me  not  in  thine  anger, 

Neither  chasten  me  in  thy  hot  displeasure. 
Have  mercy  upon  me,  O  LORD;  for  I  am  withered  away: 

O  LORD,  heal  me;  for  my  bones  are  vexed; 

My  soul  also  is  sore  vexed. 
And  thou,  O  LORD,  how  long? 

Return,  O  LORD,  deliver  my  soul : 

Save  me  for  thy  lovingkindness'  sake. 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  189 

For  in  death  there  is  no  remembrance  of  thee : 

In  Sheol  who  shall  give  thee  thanks? 
I  am  weary  with  my  groaning; 

Every  night  make  I  my  bed  to  swim; 

I  water  my  couch  with  my  tears. 
Mine  eye  wasteth  away  because  of  grief; 

It  waxeth  old  because  of  all  mine  adversaries. 

Depart  from  me,  all  ye  workers  of  iniquity; 

For  the  LORD  hath  heard  the  voice  of  my  weeping. 
The  LORD  hath  heard  my  supplication; 

The  LORD  will  receive  my  prayer. 
All  mine  enemies  shall  be  ashamed  and  sore  vexed : 

They  shall  turn  back,  they  shall  be  ashamed  suddenly. 

In  this  case  we  have  a  monody  free  from  any  admixture  of  descrip- 
tion, and  the  monody  presents  a  sufferer  undergoing,  as  he  speaks 
it,  the  change  his  words  describe :  an  experience  is  acted  before 
us,  and  we  thus  have  a  lyric  poem  that  is  a  complete  drama. 

This  presentation  of  trouble   passing  dramatically  into   relief 
belongs  to  psalm  after  psalm  of  the  Bible;  from  the  Table  of 

Biblical  Lyrics  in  the  Appendix  they  can  be  studied  „ 

3  *  Other  examples 

as  a  literary  species  in  themselves.     In  a  former 
chapter  was  reviewed  a  notable  example  of  it,  the  hundred  and 
thirty-ninth  psalm :   there  the  dread  of  the  Divine  omniscience 
with  which  the  poem  opens  becomes  changed  into  a  loving  recog- 
nition of  its  supporting  efficacy,  and  the  transition 

11  i  •  •         p    i       Psalms  czzziz. 

is  made  at  the  very  centre  and  turning-point  of  the  Xli-  lvii 

lyric  movement.    The  dramatic  transition  can  be 

intensified  by  its  abruptness.     The  psalm  that  commences  with 

the  cry, 

My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me  ? 

and  carries  into  detail  the  self-picturing  of  a  God-forsaken  heart, 
makes  its  change  from  despair  to  rapture  in  the  middle  of  a 
sentence. 

Deliver  my  soul  from  the  sword; 

My  darling  from  the  power  of  the  dog; 
Save  me  from  the  lion's  mouth  — 

Yea,  from  the  horns  of  the  wild-oxen  thou  hast  answered  me ! 


190  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

A  similar  abruptness  marks  the  turning-point  of  the  fifty-seventh 
psalm,  which  further  has  a  refrain  to  bind  closer  its  two  halves ; 
the  words  — 

Be  thou  exalted,  O  God,  above  the  heavens; 
Let  thy  glory  be  above  all  the  earth  !  — 

when  they  occur  the  first  time  must  be  understood  as  an  expres- 
sion of  resignation ;  when  they  come  again  they  catch  from  the 
surrounding  verses  the  tone  of  unfettered  exultation.     And  per- 
haps the  most  complete  illustration  of  this  literary 
form  is  to  be  found  in  the  third  psalm.     Here  the 
usual  change  from  distress  to  happiness  appears  to  coincide  with  a 
variation  in  external  surroundings  between  night  and  morning; 
brief  as  the  poem  is,  it  amounts  to  a  miniature  drama  in  two 
scenes. 

PSALM  III 


LORD,  how  are  mine  adversaries  increased ! 

Many  are  they  that  rise  up  against  me. 
Many  there  be  which  say  of  my  soul, 

"There  is  no  help  for  him  in  God." 
But  thou,  O  LORD,  art  a  shield  about  me; 

My  glory,  and  the  lifter  up  of  mine  head. 
I  cry  unto  the  LORD  with  my  voice, 

And  he  answereth  me  out  of  his  holy  hill. 

MORNING 

I  laid  me  down  and  slept; 

I  awaked;  for  the  LORD  sustaineth  me. 
I  will  not  be  afraid  of  ten  thousands  of  the  people, 

That  have  set  themselves  against  me  round  about. 
Arise,  O  LORD  ;  save  me,  O  my  God : 

For  thou  hast  smitten  all  mine  enemies  upon  the  cheek  bone; 

Thou  hast  broken  the  teeth  of  the  wicked. 
Salvation  belongeth  unto  the  LORD  : 

Thy  blessing  be  upon  thy  people. 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  191 

The  term  Dramatic  Anthems  will  cover  another  class  of  poems, 
which  have  a  great  literary  interest,  and  are  specially  characteristic 
of  the  psalter.     These  contain  two  dramatic  transi- 
tions instead  of  one  ;  yet  they  present  only  a  single 


moment.  They  open  with  a  song  of  deliverance. 
Then  the  action  passes  backward  in  time  to  the  trouble  from 
which  the  speaker  has  been  delivered  ;  and  this  is  presented 
dramatically  in  the  actual  words  it  evoked,  as  if  the  sufferer  were 
quoting  from  himself.  Then  the  poem  returns  to  the  point  at 
which  it  started,  and  the  triumph  is  renewed.  The  great  illus- 
tration of  this  type  is  the  twenty-seventh  psalm. 

PSALM   XXVII 

The  LORD  is  my  light  and  my  salvation;  opening 

Whom  shall  I  fear  ?  triumph 

The  LORD  is  the  strength  of  my  life  : 

Of  whom  shall  I  be  afraid? 
When  evil-doers  came  upon  me 

To  eat  up  my  fle'sh, 
Even  mine  adversaries  and  my  foes, 

They  stumbled  and  fell. 
Though  an  host  should  encamp  against  me, 

My  heart  shall  not  fear  : 
Though  war  should  rise  against  me, 

Even  then  will  I  be  confident. 

One  thing  have  I  asked  of  the  LORD, 

That  will  I  seek  after; 
That  I  may  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  LORD 

All  the  days  of  my  life, 
To  behold  the  beauty  of  the  LORD, 

And  to  inquire  in  his  temple. 
For  in  the  day  of  trouble  he  shall  keep  me  secretly  in  his  pavilion  : 

In  the  covert  of  his  tabernacle  shall  he  hide  me; 
He  shall  lift  me  up  upon  a  rock. 

And  now  shall  mine  head  be  lifted  up  above  mine  enemies 

round  about  me; 
And  I  will  offer  in  his  tabernacle  sacrifices  of  joy; 

I  will  sing,  yea,  I  will  sing  praises  unto  the  LORD. 


192  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

retrogres-  •  Hear,  O  LORD,  when  I  cry  with  my  voice : 

sion  to  the          «  Have  mercy  also  upon  me,  and  answer  me. 
time  of 

trouble  f      „ 

"  Seek  ye  my  face     — 

4  My  heart  said  unto  thee,  Thy  face,  LORD,  will  I  seek. 

'  Hide  not  thy  face  from  me; 

'  Put  not  thy  servant  away  in  anger : 

'Thou  hast  been  my  help;   cast  me  not  off: 
'  Neither  forsake  me,  O  God  of  my  salvation. 
'  When  my  father  and  mother  forsake  me 
'  The  LORD  will  take  me  up.' 

'  Teach  me  thy  way,  O  LORD, 

'  And  lead  me  in  a  plain  path,  because  of  mine  enemies. 
'  Deliver  me  not  over  unto  the  will  of  mine  adversaries : 
'  For  false  witnesses  are  risen  up  against  me,  and  such  as  breathe 
out  cruelty '  — 

return  to  I  had  fainted,  unless  I  had  believed  to  see  the  goodness  of  the 
^^^  LORD 

In  the  land  of  the  living. 
Wait  on  the  LORD  :  be  strong,  and  let  thine  heart  take  courage; 

Yea,  wait  thou  on  the  LORD. 

There  is  no  mistaking  the  sense  of  deliverance  animating  the 
opening  section ;  this  strain  is  abruptly  resumed  at  the  close  ; 
what  then  is  more  natural  than  to  connect  the  intervening  verses 
with  the  trouble  to  which  the  deliverance  relates?  No  difficulty 
would  have  been  felt  had  the  middle  verses  of  the  poem  been 
prefaced  by  the  formula,  "  And  I  said  — ."  But  the  omission  of 
such  introduction  makes  the  whole  more  vivid  and  dramatic  :  it 
is  like  a  substitution  of  direct  speech  for  oblique.  Some  of  those 
who  do  not  recognise  the  structure  I  have  described  deal  with 
the  difficulties  of  the  poem  by  dividing  it,  and  insist  that  at  verse 
seven  a  different  psalm  commences,  the  two  having  been  made 
one  by  editors  or  transcribers.  But  it  is  difficult  to  see  what  there 
is  in  favour  of  such  an  explanation.  No  external  evidence  is  sug- 
gested. No  motive  appears  for  thus  putting  together  what,  to  the 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  193 

ordinary  reader,  seems  separated  by  such  a  break.  Moreover, 
the  theory  does  not  really  solve  the  difficulty,  since  the  transition 
from  verse  twelve  to  the  close  is  as  abrupt  as  the  transition  from 
verse  six  to  verse  seven.  On  the  other  hand,  by  the  explanation 
here  suggested,  the  breaks  become  part  of  the  dramatic  effect  of 
the  whole  ;  and  the  psalm,  instead  of  being  treated  as  something 
accidental  and  exceptional,  becomes  one  of  a  class  of  psalms 
which  have  as  their  common  structure  this  double  dramatic 
change.1 

The  subject  is  important  enough  to  justify  one  more  illustration 
of  this  class  of  dramatic  lyrics.  The  eighty-fifth  psalm  celebrates 

the  deliverance  of  the  nation  from  captivity.     It 

.    '        .  %       ,        .  ,.,        ,        Psalm  Izzzv 

has  the  usual  opening  triumph  ;  it  passes  like  the 

rest  to  the  prayer  in  trouble ;  then,  instead  of  a  sudden  return  to 
the  first  tone,  it  has  a  transition  stage,  in  which  the  poet  pauses 
to  wait  for  the  answer  to  his  nation's  prayer ;  the  answer  comes, 
and  the  final  section  is  a  burst  of  joy  in  which  the  recovered 
fatherland  is  beheld  with  a  glory  of  transfiguration  upon  it.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  opening  and  close  are  symmetrical  in 
structure,  while  in  the  intervening  parts  the  structure  is  slightly 
changed. 

1  Besides  the  two  described  in  the  text  the  class  includes  Psalm  cviii :  its  first 
five  verses  express  the  triumph,  verses  6-12  are  the  prayer  of  the  trouble  [compare 
Psalm  Ix,  where  these  very  verses  make  part  of  the  prayer  on  the  occasion  of  the 
defeat  that  seems  to  have  preceded  the  victory] .  —  Again  there  is  Psalm  cxliv :  it 
starts  with  ecstatic  sense  of  deliverance ;  then  verses  3-8  go  back  to  the  previous 
trouble,  expressing  the  sufferer's  confidence  in  God  and  scorn  of  the  foe ;  from 
verse  9  to  the  end  is  the  'new  song"  inspired  by  the  deliverance,  the  line  of 
thought  being  obscured  only  by  verse  n,  which  is  however  merely  the  repetition 
of  the  refrain  (compare  verses  7,  8)  parenthetically,  a  common  device  in  lyric 
poetry. 

Psalm  ix-x  [which  the  acrostic  structure  shows  to  be  a  single  poem]  represents 
the  same  structural  form  duplicated:  ix.  1-12,  triumph;  13,  14,  dramatic  prayer  of 
trouble;  15-20,  return  to  triumph;  x.  i-n,  recurrence  to  dramatic  prayer  of 
trouble ;  14-18,  final  resumption  of  triumph.  Verses  12-13  are  transitional :  com- 
pare verse  8  in  Psalm  Ixxxv. 

Psalm  xxxi  exhibits  a  similar  duplication  applied  to  the  dramatic  lyric  with 
single  change  [1-6  trouble,  7-8  deliverance,  9-18  trouble,  19-24  deliverance]. 
Compare  with  both  these  last  examples  the  pendulum  movement  (above,  page 
145)- 


194 


LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


opening 
triumph 


retrogres- 
sion to 
time  of 
trouble 


PSALM   LXXXV 

LORD,  thou  hast  been  favourable  unto  thy  land : 
Thou  hast  brought  back  the  captivity  of  Jacob. 

Thou  hast  forgiven  the  iniquity  of  thy  people, 

Thou  hast  covered  all  their  sin, 

Thou  hast  taken  away  all  thy  wrath, 

Thou  hast  turned  thyself  from  the  fierceness  of  thine  anger. 

'  Turn  us,  O  God  of  our  salvation, 

'  And  cause  thine  indignation  toward  us  to  cease. 

'  Wilt  thou  be  angry  with  us  for  ever? 

'Wilt  thou  draw  out  thine  anger  to  all  generations? 

'  Wilt  thou  not  quicken  us  again, 

'  That  thy  people  may  rejoice  in  thee  ? 

'  Shew  us  thy  mercy,  O  LORD, 

'  And  grant  us  thy  salvation. 

'  I  will  hear  what  God  the  LORD  will  speak : 

'  For  he  will  speak  peace  unto  his  people, 

'  And  to  his  saints, 

'  But  let  them  not  turn  again  to  folly.' 

Surely  his  salvation  is  nigh  them  that  fear  him, 
That  glory  may  dwell  in  our  land. 

Mercy  and  truth  are  met  together ; 
Righteousness  and  peace  have  kissed  each  other. 
Truth  springeth  out  of  the  earth ; 
And  righteousness  hath  looked  down  from  heaven. 

Yea,  the  LORD  shall  give  that  which  is  good; 
And  our  land  shall  yield  her  increase. 
Righteousness  shall  go  before  him; 
And  shall  make  his  footsteps  a  way  to  walk  in. 


A  small  class  of  poems  may  here  be  mentioned  under  the  name 
of  Visions.  They  are  highly  dramatic  in  effect,  but  in  form  are 
not  entirely  monologue :  with  monologue  is  min- 
gled the  scenic  description  which  later  we  shall 
see  as  a  characteristic  of  the  Rhapsody.  An  example  is  psalm 
fifty-three.  It  opens  with  the  much  quoted  line  : 

The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart,  There  is  no  God ! 


return  to 
triumph 


Visions 


DRAMATIC  LYRICS  195 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  explain  that  this  line  does  not  predicate 
folly  of  the  atheist;  it  has  the  converse  meaning  of  ascribing 
atheism  to  the  fool.  It  goes  on  to  portray  the  '  fool,'  or  man  of 
vicious  life,  as  human  nature  gone  bad  and  become  '  filthy,'  like 
rotten  fruit.  Then  —  perhaps  with  a  faint  reminiscence  of  Abra- 
ham and  the  destruction  of  Sodom  —  it  calls  up  before  our  mind 
the  picture  of  a  Divine  inspection  of  earth,  and  suggests  the 
result  that  '  not  one '  righteous  man  is  to  be  found.  Upon  this 
follows  the  Divine  surprise : 

Have  the  worked  of  iniquity  no  knowledge? 
Who  eat  up  my  people  as  they  eat  bread, 
And  call  not  upon  God. 

A  very  dramatic  stroke  marks  the  next  verse.  It  has  been  said 
that  magnetic  disturbances  in  the  sun  produce  tempests  on  the 
earth :  this  might  serve  as  an  illustration  for  the  subtle  connection 
hinted  here,  whereby  the  wave  of  surprise  that  passes  over  the 
bosom  of  Deity  becomes  felt  upon  earth  as  a  mysterious  panic, 
striking  the  evil  without  visible  cause,  while  the  oppressed  people 
of  God  catch  the  spirit  of  triumph  and  defiance. 

There  were  they  in  great  fear,  where  no  fear  was : 

For  God  hath  scattered  the  bones  of  him  that  encampeth  against  thee; 

Thou  hast  put  them  to  shame,  because  God  hath  rejected  them. 

Here  the  psalm  ends.  But  a  postscript1  seems  to  have  been 
added  by  some  age  that  looked  in  vain  for  the  promised  inter- 
position of  omnipotence :  would  that  the  salvation  of  Israel  were 
indeed  come  out  of  Zion  !  The  deliverance  of  the  captive  people 
of  God  would  be  such  a  triumph  as  has  been  pictured. 

In  the  fiftieth  psalm  we  have  again  the  combination,  but  on  a 
larger  scale,  of  Divine  monologue  with  scenic  intro- 
duction.    The  whole  world  has  been   summoned 
to  the  bar  of  God ;  the  prelude  brings  out  the  scene  dramatically, 

1  Compare  Psalm  li ;  and  possibly  Psalms  xxv,  cxxx,  cxxxi.    As  to  Psalm  Ixxxix, 
see  page  150. 


196  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

in  the  words  of  God's  people,  who  are  awaiting,  with  exultation, 
the  opening  of  this  High  Court. 

Out  of  Zion,  the  perfection  of  beauty,  God  hath  shined  forth. 

Our  God  cometh,  and  shall  not  keep  silence. 
A  fire  devoureth  before  him, 

And  it  is  very  tempestuous  round  about  him. 

All  are  assembled,  the  '  saints  of  God '  on  one  side,  and  the 
wicked  opposite  to  them ;  only  the  heavens  themselves  are  left  to 
be  spectators  of  this  Act  of  Justice.  From  this  point  the  structure 
becomes  antistrophic.  First,  God  addresses  his  faithful  people ; 
he  has  not  come  to  exact  of  them  more  sacrifices  or  take  more  of 
their  bullocks  or  he-goats ;  it  is  by  their  cries  to  him  in  trouble, 
and  their  thanksgiving  when  deliverance  has  come,  that  they  can 
truly  glorify  their  God.  In  the  antistrophe  God  turns  to  the 
wicked  :  how  have  they  dared  to  join  in  his  worship,  while  they 
were  partakers  in  evil  and  crime  ?  It  is  he  who  ordereth  his  con- 
versation aright  that  shall  see  the  salvation  of  God. 

The  term  Ritual  Psalms  explains  itself.     Under  this  head  we 

may   perhaps    include    the    Occasional   Anthems, 
Ritual  Psalms  .  .  . 

noted  m  the  last  chapter,  which,  as  distinguished 

from  the  simpler  Occasional  Songs,  connect  themselves  with 
elaborate  ceremonial,  such  as  the  inauguration  of  Jerusalem. 
The  National  Anthems,  fully  discussed  under  the  head  of  odes, 
may  also  be  placed  in  this  division  of  lyric  poetry,  although  only 
one  of  the  four  —  the  Wilderness  Hymn  —  bears  on  its  surface 
the  ritual  form.  The  ritual  of  war  has  its  representation  in  the 
psalter.  Psalm  fifty-nine  is  a  War  Ballad,  vigorous 
and  Anthems  though  obscure.  Apparently  the  foe  is  some  rabble 
Psalms  lix,  xx-  horde  :  there  are  hints  of  heathen,  of  uncouth  jar- 

xxi,  lx,  cviii  ,       ,  ...          „ 

gon,  of  swarming  by  night :  the  ballad  spirit  is  well 
brought  out  by  the  verses  that  recur  (with  variation)  : 

They  return  at  evening, 
They  make  a  noise  like  a  dog, 
And  go  round  about  the  city. 


RITUAL   PSALMS  197 

Behold,  they  belch  out  with  their  mouth; 
Swords  are  in  their  lips  — 
'  For  who  doth  hear  ? ' 

Military  anthems  are  found  to  meet  different  exigences.  In 
psalm  twenty  the  king  and  people,  antiphonally,  commend  them- 
selves to  God  before  going  into  battle ;  in  the  psalm  that  follows 
they  are  triumphing  together  over  victory.1  Psalms  sixty  and 
one  hundred  and  eight  are  also  companion  poems  :  with  a  similar 
antiphony  of  king  and  people  they  deplore  defeat  and  triumph  in 
victory.2 

It  is  of  course  to  religious  worship  that  the  great  mass  of  the 
ritual  psalms  belong.  I  apply  the  term  Festal  Hymns  to  psalms 
which  breathe  the  general  spirit  of  a  high  feast  day,  though  they 
may  not  fit  themselves  to  any  particular  ceremonial.  One  variety 
of  these  has  been  called  Hallelujahs :  in  typical  cases  they  have 
the  ejaculation  from  which  they  are  named  at  the  opening  and 
close.  Scarcely  different  from  these  are  the  Accession  Hymns : 
here  the  exclamation,  "The  LORD  reigneth"  is  the  keynote  of 
the  whole.  In  Votive  Hymns  an  individual  comes  to  mingle  his 
personal  vow  with  the  general  thanksgiving ;  even  such  poems  as 
the  Song  of  Hannah,  or  of  Mary,  however  personal  the  strain  with 
which  they  start,  yet  before  the  end  seem  to  merge  this  in  praise 
that  is  of  universal  application.  Festal  and  Votive  Hymns  can  be 
expanded  into  the  elaborateness  of  Festal  and  Votive  Anthems. 
This  is  usually  the  case  where  successive  poems,  as  they  stand  in 
our  Book  of  Psalms,  seem  to  combine  together  into 
one  sustained  act  of  praise.  Yet  even  within  the 
limits  of  a  single  brief  psalm  we  may  find  a  Festal 
Anthem,  if  we  understand  psalm  sixty-seven  as  a  Response  to  the 
High  Priestly  Benediction.8 

1  People,  verses  i,  7;  king,  verse  6:  of  Psalm  xx.     In  Psalm  xxi :  king,  verses 
1-7 ;  people,  verses  8-13. 

2  People,  verses  i,  12;  king,  verses  5-11 :  of  Psalm  Ix.     In  Psalm  cviii :  people, 
verses,  i,  13 ;  king,  verses  6-12. 

*  Of  course,  as  the  psalm  stands  there  is  a  discrepancy  between  the  Divine 
names  ;  The  Lord  in  the  Blessing,  God  in  the  Response.    But  this  is  only  an  acci« 


198  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

THE  HIGH  PRIEST 

The  LORD  bless  thee, 

And  keep  thee  ; 
The  LORD  make  his  face  to  shine  upon  thee, 

And  be  gracious  unto  thee  ; 
The  LORD  lift  up  his  countenance  upon  thee, 

And  give  thee  peace  ! 

THE   PEOPLE 

God  be  merciful  unto  us,  and  bless  us, 

And  cause  his  face  to  shine  upon  us; 

That  thy  way  may  be  known  upon  earth, 

Thy  saving  health  among  all  nations. 

LET  THE  PEOPLES  PRAISE  THEE,  O  GOD, 
LET  ALL  THE  PEOPLES  PRAISE  THEE. 

O  let  the  nations  be  glad, 

And  sing  for  joy : 

For  thou  shalt  judge  the  peoples  with  equity, 
And  govern  the  nations  upon  earth. 

LET  THE  PEOPLES  PRAISE  THEE,  O  GOD, 
LET  ALL  THE  PEOPLES  PRAISE  THEE. 

The  earth  hath  yielded  her  increase : 

God,  even  our  own  God,  shall  bless  us. 

God  shall  bless  us : 

And  all  the  ends  of  the  earth  shall  fear  him. 

LET  THE    PEOPLES   PRAISE  THEE,  O  GOD, 
LET   ALL   THE   PEOPLES   PRAISE  THEE. 

So  far  we  have  seen  liturgical  psalms  which  have  been  com- 
posed wholly  in  one  tone,  that  of  praise.  But  it  belongs  to 
Liturgy,  that  is,  to  Divine  Service,  to  unite  many 
moods  of  the  soul  in  one  exercise,  to  mingle  peni- 
tence with  praise,  confession  of  faith  with  supplica- 
tion. There  are  certain  psalms  which  seem  to  show  a  similar 

dent  due  to  the  position  of  Psalm  Ixvii  in  Book  II  of  the  psalter,  where  the  name 
Elohim  prevails.  Psalm  liii  in  the  same  book  is  a  reproduction  of  Psalm  xiv  with 
God  substituted  for  The  Lord.  —  The  refrain  has  to  be  supplied  for  the  third  stanza : 
compare  above,  page  59. 


RITUAL  PSALMS  199 

mingling  of  moods,  —  psalms  which  a  close  analysts  will  separate 
altogether  from  the  personal  monologues  filled  with  variations  of 
individual  experience,  and  which  must  be  classified  with  the  poetry 
of  public  worship.  The  explanation  is  that  in  such  cases  we  have 
a  complete  liturgy  within  the  limits  of  a  single  psalm. 

The  characteristics  I  am  describing  distinguish  one  of  the  most 
impressive  psalms  in  the  whole  Bible ;  and  the  discussion  of  this 
psalm  illustrates  the  important  bearing  of  such  considerations  upon 
interpretation.  The  sixty-fifth  psalm  will  be  pronounced  by  one 
commentator  a  harvest  thanksgiving ;  another  will  see  in  it  praise 
for  forgiveness  of  national  sin.  But  such  explanations  are  incom- 
plete, and  leave  great  part  of  the  poem  without  significance.  Nor 
is  the  matter  much  mended  when  the  two  theories  are  combined. 
All  such  interpretation  assumes  for  the  psalm  a  type  of  unity  which 
it  does  not  contain.  In  discussing  the  higher  unity  I  mentioned, 
among  other  types,  the  unity  of  aggregation.  The 
sixty-fifth  psalm  is  bound  together  by  this  bond ; 
not  that  we  have  in  it  the  aggregation  of  different  compositions, 
such  as  we  saw  in  the  selections  from  the  Book  of  Proverbs ;  but 
the  parts  of  this  psalm  bring  up  in  succession  different  moods  of 
the  soul,  disconnected  from  one  another,  yet  mingling  as  they  do 
mingle  in  any  elaborate  act  of  worship. 

PSALM  LXV 

Praise  waiteth  for  thee,  O  God,  in  Zion :  praise 

And  unto  thee  shall  the  vow  be  performed. 

* 
O  thou  that  hearest  prayer,  prayer 

Unto  thee  shall  all  flesh  come. 

* 

Iniquities  prevail  against  me :  penitence 

As  for  our  transgressions,  thou  shall  purge  them  away. 

* 
Blessed  is  the  man  whom  thou  choosest,  and  causest   aspiration 

to  approach  unto  thee, 
That  he  may  dwell  in  thy  courts : 
4  We  shall  be  satisfied  with  the  goodness  of  thy  house, 
'  The  holy  place  of  thy  temple.' 


200 


LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


confession   By  terrible  things  thou  wilt  answer  us  in  righteousness,  O  God  o* 
offaith  our  salvation : 

Thou  that  art  the  confidence  of  all  the  ends  of  the  earth, 
And  of  them  that  are  afar  off  upon  the  sea : 
Which  by  his  strength  setteth  fast  the  mountains; 

Being  girded  about  with  might : 
Which  stilleth  the  roaring  of  the  seas,  the  roaring  of  their  waves, 

And  the  tumult  of  the  peoples. 
They  also  that  dwell  in  the   uttermost  parts  are  afraid  at  thy 

tokens : 

Thou  makest  the  outgoings  of  the  morning  and  evening  to 
rejoice. 

* 

adoration     Thou  visitest  the  earth,  and  waterest  it : 

Thou  greatly  enrichest  it,  the  river  of  God  is  full  of  water : 
Thou  providest  them  corn,  when  thou  hast  so  prepared  the 

earth ; 
Thou  waterest  her  furrows  abundantly,  thou  settlest  the  ridges 

thereof, 
Thou  makest  it  soft  with  showers,  thou  blessest  the  springing 

thereof, 
Thou  crownest  the  year  with  thy  goodness : 

And  thy  paths  drop  fatness, 
They  drop  upon  the  pastures  of  the  wilderness, 

And  the  hills  are  girded  with  joy, 
The  pastures  are  clothed  with  flocks : 
The  valleys  also  are  covered  over  with  corn : 
They  shout  for  joy,  they  also  sing. 


When,  without  any  preconceived  idea  of  unity,  the  psalm  is 
examined  with  a  view  to  tracing  the  actual  connection  of  its 
different  parts,  it  is  thus  found  to  bring  before  us  in  succession  all 
the  elements  of  public  worship.  One  verse  is  an  ejaculation  of 
praise,  the  next  a  simple  prayer,  the  next^  a  simple  expression 
of  penitence.  Then  follow  words  of  aspiration,  describing  the 
devout  life  by  the  image  so  regularly  used  for  it  in  the  psalms  — 
the  dwelling  in  God's  house.  Another  theme  of  worship  then 
finds  elaborate  expression ;  that  which  in  modern  phraseology 
would  be  called  God's  Providence,  while  the  Hebrew  worshipper 


RITUAL  PSALMS  201 

would  describe  it  as  Judgment,  or  "  the  answer  in  righteousness  "  : 
this  part  of  the  liturgy  is  a  confession  of  faith.  And  the  whole 
terminates  with  adoration  to  the  God  of  Nature.  This  last  out- 
burst does  not  simply  touch  the  harvest,  but  passes  to  and  fro 
between  agricultural  and  pastoral  scenery  :  between  the  changing 
year  of  agriculture  —  from  the  first  ploughing  to  the  crowning 
harvest  —  and  the  dropping  of  '  God's  paths,'  the  rainclouds, 
upon  the  pasture  lands,  until  both  sides  of  external  nature  are 
united  in  a  shout  and  hymn  of  joy. 

The  hills  are  girded  with  joy, 
The  pastures  are  clothed  with  flocks; 
The  valleys  also  are  covered  over  with  corn; 

They  shout  for  joy,  they  also  sing. 

The  different  sections  of  the  psalm  have  np  connection  one  with 
the  other,  but  they  are  all  parts  of  a  whole,  just  as  entirely  sepa- 
rate sentences  of  confession,  of  praise,  of  supplication,  are  in  our 
modern  liturgies  bound  together  into  a  single  office  for  matins  or 
evensong. 

The  ritual  psalms  seem  to  reach  their  most  characteristic  form 
when  they  are  antiphonal  in  structure.  Antiphonal  performance 
may  be  assumed  in  the  case  of  all;  but  there  are  mtuai psalms 
some  cases  in  which  the  whole  form  and  succession  with  antiphonal 
of  thought  imply  a  designation  for  more  than  one  structure 
set  of  performers.  I  will  take  a  fully  developed  type  in  the  hun- 
dred and  eighteenth  psalm.  The  reader  will  appreciate  the  illus- 
tration the  better  if  he  first  reads  the  hundred  and  sixteenth 
psalm.  The  two  poems  are  almost  identical  in  thought  and  situ- 
ation ;  in  each  case  an  individual  is  returning  thanks  for  deliver- 
ance apparently  from  sickness.  But  in  one  case  there  is  nothing 
to  break  the  flow  of  individual  speech ;  in  the  other  psalm  the 
sequence  of  verses  clearly  suggests  a  solo  and  two  distinct 
choruses.  At  the  beginning  the  Worshipper  is  approaching  the 
Temple  with  an  Escort  of  Friends ;  later  on  a  second  Chorus  of 
Priests  must  be  added. 


202 


LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


PSALM   CXVIII 
The  Worshipper  and  his  Escort  approach  the  Temple. 

Tutti.  O  give  thanks  unto  the  LORD  ;  for  he  is  good : 

For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 

Worshipper.  Let  Israel  now  say  — 
Escort.  That  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 

Worshipper.  Let  the  house  of  Aaron  now  say  — 
Escort.  That  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 

Worshipper.  Let  them  now  that  fear  the  LORD  say — 
Escort.  That  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 

Worshipper.    Out  of  my  distress  I  called  upon  the  LORD  : 

The  LORD  answered  me,  and  set  me  in  a  large  place. 

The  LORD  is  on  my  side ;  I  will  not  fear : 
What  can  man  do  unto  me  ? 

The  LORD  is  on  my  side  among  them  that  help  me : 

Therefore  shall  I  see  my  desire  upon  them  that  hate  me. 

Escort.  It  is  better  to  trust  in  the  LORD 

Than  to  put  confidence  in  man; 
It  is  better  to  trust  in  the  LORD 

Than  to  put  confidence  in  princes. 

Worshipper.     All  nations  compassed  me  about : 

Escort.  In  the  name  of  the  LORD  I  will  cut  them  off  1 

Worshipper.    They  compassed  me  about; 

Yea,  they  compassed  me  about : 

Escort.  In  the  name  of  the  LORD  I  will  cut  them  off ! 

Worshipper.    They  compassed  me  about  like  bees; 

They  are  quenched  as  the  fire  of  thorns : 
Escort.  In  the  name  of  the  LORD  I  will  cut  them  off  J 

Worshipper.    Thou  didst  thrust  sore  at  me  that  I  might  fall : 

But  the  LORD  helped  me. 
The  LORD  is  my  strength  and  song; 
And  he  is  become  my  salvation. 
The  voice  of  rejoicing  and  salvation  is  in  the  tents  of  the 

righteous : 

The  right  hand  of  the  LORD  doeth  valiantly. 
Escort.  The  right  hand  of  the  LORD  is  exalted : 

The  right  hand  of  the  LORD  doeth  valiantly. 


RITUAL  PSALMS  203 

Worshipper.     I  shall  not  die,  but  live, 

And  declare  the  works  of  the  LORD. 
The  LORD  hath  chastened  me  sore  : 

But  he  hath  not  given  me  over  unto  death. 
Open  to  me  the  gates  of  righteousness : 

I  will  enter  into  them,  I  will  give  thanks  unto  the  LORD. 

The  Temple  gates  open  and  disclose  a  Chorus  of  Priests. 

Priests.  This  is  the  Gate  of  the  LORD  : 

The  righteous  shall  enter  into  it. 

Worshipper.    I  will  give  thanks  unto  thee,  for  thou  hast  answered  me, 

And  art  become  my  salvation. 
The  stone  which  the  builders  rejected 

Is  become  the  head  of  the  corner. 
Escort.  This  is  the  LORD'S  doing; 

It  is  marvellous  in  our  eyes. 
This  is  the  day  which  the  LORD  hath  made; 

We  will  rejoice  and  be  glad  in  it. 
Save  now,  we  beseech  thee,  O  LORD  : 

O  LORD,  we  beseech  thee,  send  now  prosperity. 

The  Worshipper  and  Escort  enter  the  Temple,  the  Priests  welcoming  them. 

Priests.  Blessed  be  he  that  entereth  in  the  name  of  the  LORD  ! 

We  have  blessed  you  out  of  the  house  of  the  LORD  ! 

Tutti.  The  LORD  is  God,  and  he  hath  given  us  light : 

Bind  the  sacrifice  with  cords,  even  unto  the  horns  of  the  altar. 

Worshipper.    Thou  art  my  God,  and  I  will  give  thanks  unto  thee : 
Thou  art  my  God,  I  will  exalt  thee. 

Tutti.  O  give  thanks  unto  the  LORD;  for  he  is  good: 

For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever. 

In   regard   to   their  general  literary  characteristics  the  Ritual 
Psalms  for  the  most  part  exhibit  a  simplicity  that  is  beyond  analy- 
sis.   The  distinctiveness  of  the  Hymn  as  a  literary  General 
form  is  perhaps  most  easily  described  by  making  characteristics 
it  the  converse  of  Occasional  Poetry :  in  the  latter  of  Ritual  Poetry 
the  matter  is  already  provided,  and  the  matter  begets  the  emo- 
tion ;  in  the  Hymn  the  set  emotion  —  praise,  penitence  —  is  taken 


204  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

for  granted  and  looks  for  matter  to  sustain  it.  In  the  Festal  Hymns 
the  literary  student  can  only  marvel  at  the  richness  of  poetic 
thought,  and  the  height  at  which  the  exultation  is  maintained. 
Sometimes  it  is  maintained  simply  by  reiteration,  or  enumeration 
of  details ;  sometimes  imagery  is  used,  especially  the  favourite 
Hebrew  image  of  external  nature  in  excitement :  the  sea  roars, 
the  hills  leap,  the  trees  of  the  wood  sing  for  joy,  as  Jehovah  comes 
to  judgment.  And  here,  as  everywhere,  the  pendulum  swing 
characterises  the  movement  of  Biblical  thought :  the  most  sus- 
tained acts  of  praise  in  the  liturgy  of  the  psalter  are  made  by 
alternations  between  exclamations  of  exultation  on  the  one  hand, 
and  on  the  other  hand  the  detailing  of  matter  on  which  the  exul- 
tation is  founded.  Such  an  alternation,  distributed  apparently 
between  two  antiphonal  choruses,  brings  the  psalter  as  a  whole  to 
a  musical  climax :  an  abandon  of  sacred  exultation  in  which  distinc- 
tions are  lost. 

FIRST  CHORUS 

Praise  the  LORD  from  the  earth, 
Ye  dragons,  and  all  deeps : 
Fire  and  hail,  snow  and  vapour; 
Stormy  wind,  fulfilling  his  word : 

Mountains  and  all  hills; 
Fruitful  trees  and  all  cedars : 
Beasts  and  all  cattle; 
Creeping  things  and  flying  fowl : 

Kings  of  the  earth  and  all  peoples; 
Princes  and  all  judges  of  the  earth : 
Both  young  men  and  maidens; 
Old  men  and  children : 

SECOND  CHORUS 

Let  them  praise  the  name  of  the  LORD; 

For  his  name  alone  is  exalted : 

His  glory  is  above  the  earth  and  heaven. 

And  he  hath  lifted  up  the  horn  of  his  people, 

The  praise  of  all  his  saints; 

Even  of  the  children  of  Israel,  a  people  near  unto  him. 


RITUAL  PSALMS  205 

FIRST  CHORUS 

Sing  unto  the  LORD  a  new  song, 

And  his  praise  in  the  assembly  of  the  saints. 

Let  Israel  rejoice  in  him  that  made  him : 

Let  the  children  of  Zion  be  joyful  in  their  King. 

Let  them  praise  his  name  in  the  dance : 

Let  them  sing  praises  unto  him  with  the  timbrel  and  harp. 

SECOND  CHORUS 

For  the  LORD  taketh  pleasure  in  his  people : 
He  will  beautify  the  meek  with  salvation. 

FIRST  CHORUS 

Let  the  saints  exult  in  glory : 

Let  them  sing  for  joy  upon  their  beds. 

Let  the  high  praises  of  God  be  in  their  mouth, 

And  a  two-edged  sword  in  their  hand : 

SECOND  CHORUS 

To  execute  vengeance  upon  the  nations, 

And  punishments  upon  the  peoples; 

To  bind  their  kings  with  chains, 

And  their  nobles  with  fetters  of  iron; 

To  execute  upon  them  the  judgement  written, 

This  honour  have  all  his  saints. 

FIRST  CHORUS 
Praise  God  in  his  sanctuary : 

SECOND  CHORUS 
Praise  him  in  the  firmament  of  his  power. 

FIRST  CHORUS 
Praise  him  for  his  mighty  acts : 

SECOND  CHORUS 
Praise  him  according  to  his  excellent  greatness. 


206  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

FIRST  CHORUS 
Praise  him  with  the  sound  of  the  trumpet : 

SECOND  CHORUS 
Praise  him  with  the  psaltery  and  harp. 

FIRST  CHORUS 
Praise  him  with  the  timbrel  and  dance : 

SECOND  CHORUS 
Praise  him  with  the  stringed  instruments  and  the  pipe. 

FIRST  CHORUS 
Praise  him  upon  the  loud  cymbals : 

SECOND  CHORUS 
Praise  him  upon  the  high-sounding  cymbals. 

FULL  CHORUS 
LET  EVERYTHING  THAT  HATH  BREATH  PRAISE  THE  LORD. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
LYRIC  IDYL  :  '  SOLOMON'S  SONG  ' 

THE  poem  which  is  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter  affords  a 
good  illustration  of  the  principle  underlying  this  work,  —  that  clear 
Divided  Opinion  knowledge  of  the  outer  literary  form  is  an  essential 
as  to  the  form  of  for  a  thorough  grasp  of  the  matter  and  spirit  of 
Solomon's  song  literature>  That  Solomon's  Song  is  dialogue  of  a 
dramatic  character,  with  a  story  underlying  it,  must  be  recognised 
by  all ;  but  when  we  go  beyond  this  we  find  commentators  divided, 
one  set  holding  the  poem  to  be  a  drama,  the  other  an  idyl. 
Those  who  consider  it  a  drama  are  in  substantial  agreement  as  to 
its  plot :  that  the  Shulammite  is  wooed  by  King  Solomon  with 
offers  of  regal  splendour,  that  she  remains  faithful  to  her  humbler 
Shepherd  lover,  that  in  the  end  King  Solomon  gives  way  and  the 
faithful  lovers  are  united.  The  other  interpretation,  as  followed  in 
this  chapter,  identifies  Solomon  himself  with  the  humble  lover. 
The  whole  story  now  becomes  this  :  that  King  Solomon,  visiting 
his  vineyard  upon  Mount  Lebanon,  comes  by  surprise  upon  the 
fair  Shulammite  maiden ;  she  flees  from  him,  and  he  visits  her 
disguised  as  a  Shepherd  and  wins  her  love ;  then  he  comes  in 
state  to  claim  her  as  his  queen ;  they  are  being  wedded  in  the 
Royal  Palace  when  the  poem  opens.  Now,  whichever  of  these 
interpretations  be  correct,  it  is  clear  that  the  technical  question  as 
between  drama  and  idyl  involves  a  fundamental  difference  in  the 
story  of  the  poem. 

I  believe  that  the  divergence  of  interpretation  in  the  present 
case  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that,  while  Drama  is  a  thing  familiar 

207 


208  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

to  all,  few  have  considered  the  extent  to  which  the  development 
of  Lyric  Idyl  can  be  carried.1     It  may  be  admitted  Distinction  of 
at  once  that  the  traditional  masters  of  the  Idyl,   Lyric  idyl  from 
such  as  Theocritus  and  Virgil,  have  given  us  noth-  Drama 
ing  that  in  dramatic  elaborateness  approaches  Solomon's  Song. 
But  the  fine  arts  are  all  one  family,  and  the  development  which 
may  stop  short  in  pure   poetry  may  be  carried  forward  in  the 
sister  art  of  music.     Speaking  roughly,  we  may  say  that  the  differ- 
ence between  Drama  and  Lyric  Idyl  is  the  difference  between 
Opera  and  Oratorio ;  and  most  of  the  peculiar  structural  features 
of  Solomon's  Song  are  such  as  will  be  readily  intelligible  to  the 
student  of  dramatic  music. 

It  is  necessary  to  see  exactly  what  is  involved  in  the  difference 
between  the  dramatic  form  and  the  form  of  lyric  idyl.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  inevitable  in  drama  that  the  order  /j^dagntgnmy 
of  incidents  should  tally  with  the  order  of  speeches  be  alluded  to  in 
representing  them.  In  narrating  a  story,  it  is  easy  ***  order 
to  mention  a  catastrophe  and  then  go  back  in  time  to  the  circum- 
stances which  brought  that  catastrophe  about.  But  drama  is  pure 
presentation,  and  its  action  can  never  go  back  ;  hence  the  neces- 
sity in  Ancient  Tragedy,  which  dramatised  only  the  end  of  a  story, 
of  lyric  choral  odes  to  bring  out  by  narrative  important  incidents 
that  happened  earlier  than  the  opening  scene.  In  a  lyric  idyl,  on 
the  contrary,  the  story  is  not  acted,  but  assumed  and  alluded  to ; 
and  allusion  can  be  made  to  the  different  parts  of  the  story  in  any 
order.  A  pure  dramatisation  of  a  love  story  would  begin  (say) 
with  the  first  meeting  of  the  lovers,  would  proceed  with  the  cir- 

1  The  word  '  Idyl '  is  diminutive  of  the  Greek  eide,  the  term  for  the  various 
'  forms '  or  species  of  poetry.  The  original  literary  application  of  the  term  has 
been  well  explained  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Machail  as  depending  upon  a  late  usage  of  the 
word  to  express  any  rare  or  costly  form  of  merchandise :  compare  the  Latin  species 
and  the  English  spice.  The  original  Idyls  of  Theocritus  were  such  '  literary 
spices.'  The  diminutive  expresses  the  nature  of  the  subject  matter,  —  personal  love, 
domestic  life,  etc.  Thus  Wagner's  Siegfried  is  an  elaborate  and  massive  musical 
drama ;  but  when  the  composer  takes  the  themes  of  this  opera  and  interweaves 
them  with  an  old  cradle  song  to  make  a  birthday  serenade  to  his  wife  in  honour  of 
their  infant  son,  he  calls  it  the  Siegfried  Idyl. 


L YRIC  ID YL :  'SOLOMON'S  SONG '  209 

cumstances  of  their  growing  intimacy,  and  end  with  their  marriage. 
But  the  series  of  idyls  making  Solomon's  Song  commences  with 
the  wedding  day,  goes  back  to  the  day  of  betrothal  and  remi- 
niscences of  the  courtship,  and  then  goes  forward  to  what  in  mod- 
ern parlance  might  be  called  the  close  of  the  honeymoon. 

Again,  in  a  drama  every  speech  must  be  referred  to  personal 
speakers,  either  an  individual  or  a  Chorus.  But  lyric  poetry,  in 
addition  to  these,  can  make  use  of  a  Reciting 
Chorus  1Dg  Chorus,  which  is  impersonal,  and  merely  the  au- 
thor's device  for  carrying  on  the  story  in  the  parts 
not  represented  dramatically.  Thus  in  Mendelssohn's  Elijah,  the 
Chorus  is  sometimes  personal,  as  where  it  presents  the  Priests 
of  Baal  crying,  "  O  Baal,  hear  us  " ;  in  other  cases  it  is  imper- 
sonal, as  where  it  is  used  to  describe  the  fire  falling  from  heaven, 
or  to  point  the  moral  in  the  chorale,  "  Cast  thy  burden  upon  the 
Lord."  So  in  the  present  case,  we  have  both  a  personal  Chorus 
of  Daughters  of  Jerusalem  who  escort  the  Bride,  and  a  merely 
abstract  Chorus  used  to  describe  the  journey  of  Solomon  in  his 
state  chariot.  Another  consideration  is  worth  mentioning  in  this 
connection.  Every  speech  in  a  drama  must  be  spoken  in  a  definite 
place  or  '  scene ' :  but  this  Reciting  Chorus  is,  on  the  contrary,  used 
as  a  device  for  suggesting  transition  from  one  scene  to  another. 

As  a  third  feature  of  the  Lyric  Idyl  may  be  mentioned  the 

refrains.     Refrains  in  lyric  poetry  always  may  be,  and  usually  are, 

parenthetic ;  they  must  not  be  attached  to  their 

O)  parenthetic  context  but  referred  to  the  poem  as  a  whole.  A 
refrains 

simple  modern  ballad  will  narrate  a  story,  —  how, 

for  example,  the  spectre  of  a  lover  comes  to  claim  his  mistress, 
how  she  responds  to  his  summons,  and  is  borne  to  a  distant  land, 
where  she  is  found  dead  on  his  tomb.  The  verses  containing  this 
narrative  will  be  continually  interrupted  by  the  refrain  : 

—  Sing  hey,  sing  ho,  the  linden  tree  — 

These  words  have  no  point  in  relation  to  the  sentences  to  which 
they  are  attached,  but  very  likely  internipt  their  grammatical  con- 


210  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

stmction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  idea  of  the  wind  singing 
through  the  trees  makes  an  effective  background  to  be  kept 
present  in  the  mind  through  the  whole  of  a  story  of  weird  inci- 
dent. Such  refrains  may  be  compared  to  the  musical  accompani- 
ment heard  continuing  the  strains  of  a  song  during  the  intervals 
between  the  spoken  verses.  In  the  present  case  there  are  three 
refrains  which,  wherever  they  occur,  must  be  separated  from  the 
dialogue.  In  their  subject  they  are  just  suited  to  keep  before  us 
the  general  spirit  of  the  whole  poem.  In  one,  there  is  a  call  upon 
all  to  leave  the  lovers  to  their  repose. 

I  adjure  you,  O  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 

By  the  roes,  and  by  the  hinds  of  the  field,         ^   5  and  viii 

That  ye  stir  not  up,  nor  awaken  love, 

Until  it  please. 

The  second  is,  in  its  various  forms,  the  mutual  pledge. 

My  beloved  is  mine,  and  I  am  his :  u.  16:  compare 

Hefeedeth  his  flock  among  the  lilies.  *i.  3  andvii.  10 

The  third  is  the  summons  to  embrace. 

Until  the  day  break,  and  the  shadows  flee  away, 

Turn,  my  beloved,  and  be  thou  like  a  roe  or  a  young  hart   iy'  6  ^nd  viii 

Upon  the  mountains  of  separation. 

Love  strains  like  these  are  the  essence  of  the  whole  poem,  and 
are  naturally  used  to  separate  the  idyls  from  one  another,  or  mark 
the  natural  divisions  of  each. 

I  have  yet  to  mention  something  specially  characteristic  of  this 
poem,  which  is  readily  intelligible  as  a  feature  of  a  lyric  idyl. 
We  find  incidents  conveyed  dramatically  by  dia- 
logue which,  nevertheless,  cannot  be  part  of  the 
scene  in  which  they  occur,  but  must,  at  that  point, 
be  a  reminiscence.  Such  an  effect  may  be  called  a  Dramatised 
Reminiscence.  Thus  it  is  part  of  the  story  as  here  interpreted 
that  Solomon,  when  the  Shulammite  damsel  had  fled  from  him  at 


LYRIC  IDYL:  'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  211 

his  first  appearance,  continued  his  suit  to  her  in  the  disguise  of 
a  Shepherd.  She  wonders  who  this  stranger  is,  so  different  from 
the  shepherds  she  knows. 

i.  7  Tell  me,  O  thou  whom  my  soul  loveth, 

Where  thou  feedest  thy  flock, 
Where  thou  makest  it  to  rest  at  noon : 
For  why  should  I  be  as  one  that  wandereth 
Beside  the  flocks  of  thy  companions? 

He  of  course  seeks  to  evade  her  scrutiny  by  a  vague  answer. 

i.  8  If  thou  know  not,  O  thou  fairest  among  women, 

Go  thy  way  forth  by  the  footsteps  of  the  flock, 
And  feed  thy  kids  besjde  the  shepherds'  tents. 

Such  a  detail  in  itself  is  natural  enough  in  a  love  story.  But  the 
point  of  the  present  suggestion  is  that  the  position  of  the  speeches 
just  quoted  —  in  the  wedding  scene  —  is  perfectly  intelligible. 
It  is  natural  that  the  Shulammite,  when  for  the  first  time  she  be- 
holds her  royal  lover  in  the  splendour  of  his  palace,  should  allude 
to  her  former  attempt  to  penetrate  his  disguise.  And  it  is  equally 
natural  that  the  allusion  should  take  the  form  of  recalling  the 
actual  words  used  by  each  :  they  are  merely  quoting  their  former 
selves,  a  thing  which  we  have  already  seen  as  a  tendency  of  the 
dramatic  lyrics  in  the  psalter.1  Or,  to  take  another  instance, 
it  is  natural  for  the  king  in  his  musings  on  his  bride  to  recall 
the  moment  of  their  first  meeting.  The  sudden  surprise  of  the 
courtly  escort  at  the  rustic  maiden's  beauty  is  conveyed  in  the 
form  of  a  speech. 

vi.  xo  Who  is  she  that  looketh  forth  as  the  morning, 

Fair  as  the  moon, 
Pure  as  the  sun, 
Terrible  as  an  army  with  banners? 

Her  startled  feelings  as  the  royal  cortege  surprised  her  are 
expressed  as  if  they  had  been  spoken. 

1  See  above,  page  191. 


212  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

I  went  down  into  the  garden  of  nuts,  vi.  H 

To  see  the  green  plants  of  the  valley, 

To  see  whether  the  vine  budded, 

And  the  pomegranates  were  in  flower. 

Or  ever  I  was  aware,  my  soul  set  me 

Among  the  chariots  of  my  princely  people. 

It  is  natural  to  follow  up  this  with  the  cry  to  the  damsel  to  stop. 

Return,  return,  O  Shulammite;  vi.  13 

Return,  return,  that  we  may  look  upon  thee. 

Then  will  be  expressed  her  uneasiness  at  the  gaze,  whether  spoken 
at  the  time  or  not. 

Why  will  ye  look  upon  the  Shulammite; 
As  upon  the  dance  of  Mahanaim? 

All  this  is  not  a  dialogue  taking  place  at  point  of  the  poem  where 
the  words  occur,  but  the  form  of  dialogue  thrown  over  the  sensa- 
tion of  an  emphatic  moment,  recalled  as  a  reminiscence  by  the 
king  in  the  midst  of  his  meditations  on  his  queen.  It  belongs 
naturally  to  the  free  movement  of  lyric  poetry  between  meditation 
and  dramatic  presentation ;  and  resembles  the  common  device  in 
narrative  of  a  sudden  change  from  indirect  to  direct  narration.1 

Keeping  these  points  of  literary  form  before  us,  we  may  follow 
the  poem  as  a  Suite  of  seven  Idyls.     The  first  pre-  Soiomon,s  Song 
sents  the  Wedding  Day,  its  personages  being  the  as  a  Suite  of 
King,  the  Bride,  and  her  escort,  the   Chorus   of  Sevenldyls 
Daughters   of   Jerusalem.     It  opens   outside   the   palace.     The 
bridal  procession  is  approaching :  the  royal  Bride- 
groom leads  the  Bride,  followed  by  an  Attendant 
Chorus  of  Daughters   of   Jerusalem.     The  Bride 
is   softly  speaking,   half  to   her  Attendants,  half  to  the  Bride- 
groom. 

1  The  Dramatised  Reminiscence  may  be  conveniently  represented  to  the  eye  by 
inverted  commas. 


LYRIC  IDYL:   'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  213 

THE  BRIDE  ^  - 

Let  him  kiss  me  with  the  kisses  of  his  mouth : 

For  thy  love  is  better  than  wine. 
Thine  ointments  have  a  goodly  fragrance; 
Thy  name  is  as  ointment  poured  forth : 

Therefore  do  the  virgins  love  thee.  — 

A  pause  is  made  at  the  threshold  of  the  palace  for  the  central 
point  of  the  ceremony.  Different  races  or  ages  have  fastened 
upon  different  external  forms  for  the  decisive  point  of  a  wedding 
ceremony :  with  ourselves  it  is  an  exchange  of  rings,  with  some 
oriental  peoples  the  breaking  of  a  piece  of  pottery.  In  the  world 
of  this  poem  the  essential  ceremony  of  the  wedding  is  the  lifting 
of  the  Bride  by  the  Bridegroom  over  the  threshold  of  her  future 
home  :  this  ceremonial  action  gives  interpretation  to  a  much  dis- 
puted passage. 

THE  BRIDE  (to  the  Bridegroom) 
Draw  me  — 

ATTENDANT  CHORUS 
We  will  run  after  thee. 
[  The  Bridegroom  lifts  the  Bride  across  the  threshold. 

THE  BRIDE 
The  king  hath  brought  me  into  his  chambers. 

ATTENDANT  CHORUS 
We  will  be  glad  and  rejoice  in  thee, 
We  will  make  mention  of  thy  love  more  than  of  wine. 

THE  BRIDE 
In  uprightness  do  they  love  thee. 

The  scene  now  changes  to  the  inside  of  the  palace.  The  Bride 
— a  sunburnt  country  girl  raised  to  a  royal  position  —  apologises 
for  her  homely  beauty  to  her  city  Bridesmaids. 

Look  not  upon  me,  because  I  am  swarthy, 

Because  the  sun  hath  scorched  me. 
My  mother's  sons  were  incensed  against  me, 


214  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

They  made  me  keeper  of  the  vineyards, 

But  mine  own  vineyard  have  I  not  kept ! 

Now  the  newly  wedded  pair  whisper  together  those  reminiscences 
to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made  :  how  the  Shulammite 
had  sought  to  pierce  her  lover's  disguise,  how  he  had  put  her  off 
with  meaningless  explanation.  The  idyl  then  becomes  the  pro- 
cession from  the  Banqueting  Chamber,  the  lovers  exchanging  en- 
dearing words. 

THE  BRIDEGROOM 

Behold,  thou  art  fair,  my  love;  behold,  thou  art  fair; 
Thine  eyes  are  as  doves. 

THE  BRIDE 
Behold,  thou  art  fair,  my  beloved;  yea,  pleasant: 

Also  our  couch  is  green. 
The  beams  of  our  house  are  cedars, 

And  our  rafters  are  firs. 
I  am  a  rose  of  Sharon, 

A  lily  of  the  valleys. 

THE  BRIDEGROOM 
As  a  lily  among  thorns, 

So  is  my  love  among  the  daughters. 

THE  BRIDE 
As  the  apple  tree  among  the  trees  of  the  wood, 

So  is  my  beloved  among  the  sons. 
I  sat  down  under  his  shadow  with  great  delight, 

And  his  fruit  was  sweet  to  my  taste. 
He  brought  me  to  the  banqueting  house, 

And  his  banner  over  me  was  love. 

The  procession  reaches  the  Bridal  Chamber :  then  the  refrain  is 
heard,  terminating  the  first  Song,  as  it  calls  upon  all  to  leave  the 
lovers  to  their  repose. 

/  adjure  you,  O  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 

By  the  roes,  and  by  the  hinds  of  thefieldt 
That  ye  stir  not  up,  nor  awaken  love, 

Until  it  please. 


LYRIC  IDYL:   'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  215 

The  second  Idyl  is  given  up  to  the  Bride's  remi-   n.  The  Bride's 

,_  ,  .          TT        f.     ,  .    .       Reminiscences  of 

mscences   of   the    Courtship.     Her   first   remmis-   tneCourtship: 

cence  is  of  a  visit  from  her  lover  in  the  springtide,   ii.  8-iii.  5 
and  the  sweetness  of  his  voice  in  the  fair  scene. 

'  For,  lo,  the  winter  is  past, 

'The  rain  is  over  and  gone; 

'The  flowers  appear  on  the  earth; 

'  The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come, 

'  And  the  voice  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  our  land.' 

But  the  loved  tones  were  rudely  interrupted  by  the  harsh  voices 
of  her  stern  brothers,  crying  that  the  foxes  had  broken  into  the 

vineyard. 

'Take  us  the  foxes, 

'The  little  foxes  that  spoil  the  vineyards; 
'  For  our  vineyards  are  in  blossom.' 

The  spell  is  broken  :  and  refrains  come  to  separate  one  imaginary 
love  scene  from  another. 

My  beloved  is  mine,  and  I  am  his  : 

He  feedeth  his  flock  among  the  lilies. 
Until  the  day  break,  and  the  shadows  flee  away, 
Turn,  my  beloved,  and  be  thon  like  a  roe  or  a  young  hart 
Upon  the  mountains  of  separation. 

The  second  reminiscence  then  appears  as  a  happy  dream. 

By  night,  on  my  bed,  I  sought  him  whom  my  soul  loveth : 

I  sought  him,  but  I  found  him  not. 
I  said,  I  will  rise  now,  and  go  about  the  city, 

In  the  streets  and  in  the  broad  ways, 
I  will  seek  him  whom  my  soul  loveth : 

I  sought  him,  but  I  found  him  not. 
The  watchmen  that  go  about  the  city  found  me : 

To  whom  I  said,  Saw  ye  him  whom  my  soul  loveth? 
It  was  but  a  little  that  I  passed  from  them, 

When  I  found  him  whom  my  soul  loveth : 

I  held  him,  and  would  not  let  him  go, 
Until  I  had  brought  him  into  my  mother's  house, 

And  into  the  chamber  of  her  that  conceived  me. 


216  LYRIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE 

The   third   Idyl   presents   the   Day  of  Betrothal.      Here   the 
m.  The  Day  of     Chorus,  as  suggested  above,  is  used  for  narrative 

Betrothal :  iii.        purposes. 
6-v.  i 

Who  is  this  that  cometh  up  out  of  the  wilderness 

Like  pillars  of  smoke, 
Perfumed  with  myrrh  and  frankincense, 

With  all  powders  of  the  merchant  ? 
Behold,  it  is  the  litter  of  Solomon  — 

In  full  detail  is  pictured  the  pomp  of  the  royal  escort,  when  the 
king,  crowned  with  the  crown  of  espousals,  comes  to  claim  as 
royal  queen  the  maiden  he  has  wooed  as  a  shepherd  in  her  native 
mountains. 

Come  with  me  from  Lebanon,  my  bride  .  .  . 
From  the  lions'  dens, 

From  the  mountains  of  the  leopards. 
Thou  hast  ravished  my  heart,  my  sister,  my  bride  . . . 

With  one  look  from  thine  eyes, 

With  one  chain  of  thy  neck. 

The  specific  proposal  of  marriage  is  veiled  under  the  oriental 
symbol  of  a  walled  garden. 

A  garden  shut  up  is  my  sister,  my  bride; 

A  spring  shut  up, 

A  fountain  sealed. 
Thy  shoots  are  an  orchard  of  pomegranates,  etc. 

When  the  floral  embellishments  have  been  prolonged  sufficiently 
the  acceptance  is  made  by  carrying  on  the  same  symbolism. 

THE  SHULAMMITE 

Awake,  O  north  wind,  and  come,  thou  south; 

Blow  upon  my  garden, 

That  the  spices  thereof  may  flow  out. 
Let  my  beloved  come  into  his  garden, 

And  eat  his  precious  fruits. 


LYRIC  IDYL:   'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  217 

KING  SOLOMON 

I  am  come  into  my  garden,  my  sister,  my  bride; 

I  have  gathered  my  myrrh  with  my  spice; 
I  have  eaten  my  honeycomb  with  my  honey; 

I  have  drunk  my  wine  with  my  milk. 

The  narrating  Chorus  which  commenced  this  third  Idyl  is  revived 
for  a  moment  to  apostrophise  the  now  united  pair  : 

Eat,  O  friends, 

Drink,  yea,  drink  abundantly  of  love ! 

The  fourth  Idyl  gives  a  Troubled  Dream  of  the  Bride. 

I  was  asleep,  but  my  heart  waked :  IV.  The  Bride's 

It  is  the  voice  of  my  beloved  that  knocketh,    Troubled  Dream : 

saying,  v-  *'yi-  3 

'  Open  to  me, 

'  My  sister,  my  love, 
'  My  dove,  my  undefiled : 
For  my  head  is  filled  with  dew, 

'  My  locks  with  the  drops  of  the  night.' 

While  she  paused  but  a  moment  to  array  herself,  to  dip  her  fingers 
in  the  myrrh,  he  was  gone.  She  follows  him  out  into  the  night, 
seeking  him  in  vain  :  the  watchmen  (as  in  the  former  dream) 
find  her,  but  this  time  they  smite  her  and  take  away  her  veil. 
With  the  beautiful  confusion  that  belongs  to  dream  movement  she 
finds  herself  accosting  her  train  of  bridesmaids. 

I  adjure  you,  O  daughters  of  Jerusalem, 
If  ye  find  my  beloved, 
That  ye  tell  him,  that  I  am  sick  of  love. 

The  Bridesmaids  (in  the  dream)  make  answer : 

What  is  thy  beloved  more  than  another  beloved, 

O  thou  fairest  among  women? 
What  is  thy  beloved  more  than  another  beloved, 

That  thou  dost  so  adjure  us? 

This  gives  her  opportunity  for  dilating  on  the  beauty  of  her  lover, 
and  as  the  catalogue  of  charms  is  prolonged  it  is  evident  that 


218  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

a  change  is  coming  over  the  spirit  of  the  dream.  Accordingly, 
when  the  dream  chorus  inquire  further  — 

Whither  is  thy  beloved  gone, 

O  thou  fairest  among  women? 
Whither  hath  thy  beloved  turned  him, 

That  we  may  seek  him  with  thee?— 

the  answer  is  one  of  glad  confidence  — 

My  beloved  is  gone  down  to  his  garden, 

To  the  beds  of  spices, 
To  feed  in  the  gardens, 

And  to  gather  lilies. 

So  for  concluding  note  we  have  a  happy  refrain : 

1  am  my  beloved 's 

And  my  beloved  is  mine .' 

He  feedeth  his  flock  among  the  lilies. 

The   next   Idyl  is  the  King's  Meditation  on  his  Bride.    The 

long   strain   of  rapturous  musing  upon  beauty  is  broken  in  the 

middle  by  the  dramatised   reminiscence  which   I 

V     Xho  Kind's 

Meditation  on  have  already  discussed,  and  which  gives  the  foun- 
his  Bride :  dation  for  the  whole  story  of  the  poem  :  how  the 

king  and  his  court  came  by  surprise  on  the  Shu- 
lammite  in  the  vineyard  of  Lebanon,  with  mutual  astonishment 
and  exclamation.  Incidentally,  we  have  harmonised  the  (to  us) 
incongruous  ideas  of  polygamy  and  true  love. 

There  are  threescore  queens, 

And  fourscore  concubines, 

And  virgins  without  number : 
My  dove,  my  undefiled,  is  but  one; 

She  is  the  only  one  of  her  mother. 

The  royal  harem  may  be  peopled  with  many :  the  royal  heart  has 
but  one  love,  which  the  fair  Shulammite  possesses  as  wholly  as 
a  mother's  love  is  possessed  by  an  only  child.  The  Song  of  Songs 
is  a  poem  of  pure  conjugal  affection :  as  such  it  lends  itself  to 


LYRIC  IDYL:   'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  219 

• 

spiritual  interpretation,  in  the  same  way  that  the  Isaiahan  Rhap- 
sody makes  Jehovah  the  husband  of  Zion,  or  St.  John's  Revelation 
sees  the  Church  as  the  Lamb's  Bride. 

The  last  two  songs  introduce  a  beautiful  piece  of  simple  human 
nature.     The   Bride   amid   the   splendour   of  the  vi.  The  Bride's 
palace  longs  for  her  home   on  Lebanon,  and   in  Longing  for  her 
the  sixth  Idyl  is  persuading  her  husband  to  journey  Lebanon : 
to  the  place  where  their  love  was  first  pledged.          v»-  «-viii.  4 

Come,  my  beloved,  let  us  go  forth  into  the  field; 

Let  us  lodge  in  the  villages, 

Let  us  get  up  early  to  the  vineyards  . . . 
There  will  I  give  thee  my  love. 

The  mandrakes  give  forth  fragrance, 
And  at  our  doors  are  all  manner  of  precious  fruits. 

Accordingly  the  scene  of  the  last  song  has  changed  to  Lebanon. 
A  few  words  of  the  Reciting  Chorus  bring  out  the  yn  Renewal  0, 
arrival  of  the  pair ;  the  words  sound  like  a  brief  Love  in  the 

echo  from  their  description  of  the  former  journey  vineyard  of  Leb- 

anon :  viii.  5-14 
made  in  state. 

Who  is  this  that  cometh  up  from  the  wilderness, 
Leaning  upon  her  beloved? 

Renewal  of  love  follows  in  this  the  Bride's  home,  the  scene  of  the 
first  shock  of  meeting. 

KING  SOLOMON 

Under  the  apple  tree  I  awakened  thee : 

There  thy  mother  was  in  travail  with  thee; 
There  was  she  in  travail  that  brought  thee  forth. 

THE  BRIDE 

Set  me  as  a  seal  upon  thine  heart, 

As  a  seal  upon  thine  arm : 
For  love  is  strong  as  death ; 

Jealousy  is  cruel  as  the  grave; 

Riddling  speeches  are  recalled  by  the  Bride,  spoken  to  her  in 
such  a  spot  as  this  by  her  brothers  when  she  was  too  young  to 


220  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

understand  the  mysteries  of  love.  She  then  makes  a  fresh  sur- 
render of  her  heart,  with  a  quaint  conceit  founded  on  the  circum- 
stance that  her  husband  is  (in  modern  phrase)  the  '  landlord '  of 
this  home  of  herself  and  her  brothers. 

Solomon  had  a  vineyard  at  Baal-hamon; 

He  let  out  the  vineyard  unto  keepers; 

Everyone  for  the  fruit  thereof  was  to  bring  a  thousand  pieces  of  silver. 
My  vineyard,  which  is  mine,  is  before  me : 

Thou,  O  Solomon,  shalt  have  the  thousand, 

And  those  that  keep  the  fruit  thereof  two  hundred. 

In  other  words,  Solomon  shall  be  the  owner  of  her  heart :  the 
people  of  this  her  home  have  but  had  the  deputed  tending.  The 
escort  is  heard  approaching  to  conduct  the  royal  pair  back  from 
Lebanon  :  with  a  final  embrace  the  poem  closes. 

The  consideration  of  this  poem  raises  a  literary  question  which 
is  of  wider  application.  Many  readers  of  Solomon's  Song  are  sur- 
Amatory  prised,  some  of  them  shocked,  at  the  amatory 

language  and  warmth  of  its  language,  and  the  apparent  absence 
of  all  delicacy  and  reserve  as  each  of  the  lovers 
catalogues  the  bodily  charms  of  the  other.  Partly  no  doubt  this 
is  due  to  the  more  passionate  nature  of  oriental  peoples.  But  in 
part  such  an  impression  is  a  false  one,  caused  by  the  reader's 
want  of  familiarity  with  the  poetic  medium  through  which  the 
scenes  of  the  story  are  coming  to  him.  Where  western  poetry 
rests  mainly  upon  imagery,  the  poetry  of  the  east  adds  to  imagery 
symbolism.1  Imagery  paints  pictures,  appealing  directly  to  the 
imagination  :  symbolism  is  analytical  comparison,  importing  ideas 
as  standards  of  excellence,  which  may  be  incompatible  with 
pictorial  effect. 

His  head  is  as  the  most  fine  gold  — 

This  line  by  itself  might  raise  in  our  mind  a  pictuie  of  golden 
beauty,  were  it  not  that  the  next  line  comes  as  a  contradiction  : 

His  locks  are  bushy,  and  black  as  a  raven. 

1  The  symbolism  of  the  poem  is  discussed  more  fully  in  the  Modern  Reader's 
Bible  (Biblical  Idyls) ,  pages  xix-xxiv. 


LYRIC  IDYL:   'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  221 

It  is  obvious  that  gold  and  raven  black  are  cited  only  as  two 
among  many  types  of  beauty,  all  of  which  with  all  their  self-con- 
tradiction may  be  claimed  for  the  ideal  hero.  Similarly,  a  modern 
love  song  would  be  turned  into  a  farce  by  a  comparison  of  the 
heroine's  nose  to  the  tower  of  Lebanon,  her  eyes  to  'pools  in 
Heshbon  by  the  gate  of  Beth-rabbim,'  her  delicately  braided  hair 
to  the  harness  of  Pharaoh's  steeds  :  to  the  oriental  mind  there  is 
nothing  here  for  the  imagination  to  work  upon,  but  simply  stand- 
ards of  excellence,  each  supreme  of  its  kind.  A  reader  untrained 
in  symbolism  may  easily  distort  by  attempting  to  see  pictures 
where  none  are  intended.  In  actual  fact  comments  have  been 
made  unfavourable  to  the  heaven  of  Milton's  poem,  with  its  pave- 
ment of  gold  and  gates  of  pearl,  by  those  who  have  seen  material 
images  in  what  are  only  echoes  of  Biblical  symbols.  But  when 
the  general  principle  has  been  caught,  it  is  easy  to  recognise  the 
guarded  treatment  in  Solomon's  Song  of  what  borders  on  the  sen- 
suous. Maidenhood  becomes  a  garden  shut  up  ;  chastity,  in  con- 
trast with  too  facile  disposition,  is  veiled  under  symbols  of  wall 
and  door.  The  enraptured  gaze  of  the  bridegroom  bending  over 
his  bride  at  the  feast  is  disguised  as  a  '  banner  of  love '  waving 
over  her.  The  sweet  surrender  of  the  maiden  to  her  spouse  is  sym- 
bolically put : 

They  made  me  keeper  of  the  vineyards; 

But  mine  own  vineyard  have  I  not  kept ! 

The  Shulammite  does  not  in  plain  terms  clasp  her  lover  to  her 
bosom,  but  the  refrain  bids  him  be  as  a  roe  upon  '  the  mountains 
of  separation.'  Symbolism  is  a  form  of  reserve ;  it  is  this  veiled 
treatment  of  topics  excluded  from  direct  western  speech  which 
has  enabled  the  Bible  to  provide  the  great  Honeymoon  Song  of 
the  world. 

How  greatly  the  symbolic  treatment  extends  the  range  of  poetic 
topics  may  be  best  seen  in  an  illustration  taken 
from   another  book  of  the  Bible.      A  sonnet  in  x£°  e^as 
Ecclesiastes,  by  universal  confession  one  of  the  gems 
of  poetry,   is  wholly  constructed  out  of  the  most  unpromising 


222  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

material :  for  it  is  a  tour-de-force  of  enumeration  applied  to 
symptoms  of  senile  decay  and  death.  It  is  highly  instructive,  in 
the  discussion  of  imagery  and  symbolism,  to  put  side  by  side  two 
treatments  of  the  same  theme,  one  by  a  great  Elizabethan  poet, 
the  other  in  the  oriental  style  of  Ecclesiastes.  Sackville  places  in 
his  underworld  an  image  of  Old  Age  :  the  necessities  of  the  situa- 
tion lead  him  to  an  extreme  of  imagery  and  other  devices  of 
realistic  effect. 

And  next  in  order  sad  Old  Age  we  found, 

His  beard  all  hoar,  his  eyes  hollow  and  blind; 
With  drooping  cheer  still  poring  on  the  ground, 
As  on  the  place  where  nature  him  assigned 
To  rest,  when  that  the  sisters  had  untwined 

His  vital  thread,  and  ended  with  their  knife 
The  fleeting  course  of  fast  declining  life. 

But  who  had  seen  him,  sobbing  how  he  stood 
Unto  himself,  and  how  he  would  bemoan 
His  youth  forpast,  as  though  it  wrought  him  good 
To  talk  of  youth,  all  were  his  youth  foregone : 
He  would  have  mused,  and  marvelled  much,  whereon 
This  wretched  age  should  life  desire  so  fain, 
And  knows  full  well  life  doth  but  length  his  pain. 

Crookback'd  he  was,  tooth  shaken,  and  blear-eyed : 

Went  on  three  feet,  and  sometimes  crept  on  four; 
With  old  lame  bones  that  rattled  by  his  side, 
His  scalp  all  pill'd,  and  he  with  eld  forlore; 
His  wither'd  fist  still  knocking  at  death's  door; 

Tumbling  and  drivelling  as  he  draws  his  breath : 
For  brief,  the  shape  and  messenger  of  death.1 

With  this  compare  the  Biblical  sonnet. 

Remember  also  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth : 

Or  ever  the  evil  days  come, 
And  the  years  draw  nigh 

When  thou  shalt  say,  I  have  no  pleasure  in  them. 

1  From  Sackville's  Induction  to  the  Mirror  for  Magistrates. 


LYRIC  IDYL:   'SOLOMON'S  SONG'  223 

Or  ever  the  sun, 

And  the  light, 

And  the  moon, 

And  the  stars, 
Be  darkened,  ' 
And  the  clouds  return  after  the  rain; 

In  the  day  when  the  keepers  of  the  house  shall  tremble, 

And  the  strong  men  shall  bow  themselves, 

And  the  grinders  cease  because  they  are  few, 

And  those  that  look  out  of  the  windows  be  darkened, 

And  the  doors  shall  be  shut  in  the  street; 

When  the  sound  of  the  grinding  is  low, 

And  one  shall  rise  up  at  the  voice  of  a  bird, 

And  all  the  daughters  of  music  shall  be  brought  low; 

Yea,  they  shall  be  afraid  of  that  which  is  high, 
And  terrors  shall  be  in  the  way; 
And  the  almond  tree  shall  blossom, 
And  the  grasshopper  shall  be  a  burden, 
And  the  caper-berry  shall  burst : 

Because  man  goeth  to  his  long  home, 
And  the  mourners  go  about  the  streets. 

Or  ever  the  silver  cord  be  loosed, 

Or  the  golden  bowl  be  broken, 

Or  the  pitcher  be  broken  at  the  fountain, 

Or  the  wheel  broken  at  the  cistern : 

And  the  dust  return  to  the  earth, 

As  it  was; 
And  the  spirit  return  unto  God 

Who  gave  it. 

In  the  powerful  vision  of  Sackville  every  detail  paints  a  picture ; 
the  sonnet  introduces  ideas  which  have  no  visible  resemblance  to 
the  spectacle  of  old  age,  and  yet  the  comparison  they  call  for  stirs 
a  melancholy  pleasure.  Light  fitly  symbolises  the  joy  of  mere 
existence  :  the  darkening  of  sun  and  moon  and  stars  recalls  the 
gradual  loss  of  pleasure  in  life  for  its  own  sake.  Youth  with  its 


224  LYRIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

troubles  and  quick  rallying  knows  only  the  summer  showers  :  when 
the  rallying  power  is 'gone,  "the  clouds  return  after  the  rain." 
The  "wither'd  fist  still  knocking  at  death's  door"  stamps  the 
picture  of  the  infirmity  upon  the  imagination  :  the  shaking  hands 
recede  into  the  distance  when,  with  a  whole  group  of  like  infirmi- 
ties, they  are  represented  by  the  elements  of  panic  in  a  city  — 
trembling  keepers,  strong  men  bowed  down,  grinders  ceasing  to 
work  and  spectators  to  look  out  of  windows,  while  every  door  is 
made  fast.  Similar  dim  symbols  just  touch  the  loss  of  appetite, 
of  sleep,  of  voice  ;  the  timid  and  uncertain  gait ;  the  sparse  hairs 
of  age,  its  feeble  strength.  The  sudden  bursting  of  the  caper- 
berry  that  has  been  long  shrivelling  up  marks  the  transition  to  the 
reality  that  is  being  symbolised  : 

Man  goeth  to  his  long  home, 

And  the  mourners  go  about  the  streets. 

For  the  actual  death  that  puts  a  period  to  the  gradual  decay  other 
apt  symbols  follow :  the  house  lamp  of  gold  that  has  been  secretly 
straining  its  silver  chain  now  suddenly  dropped  and  extinguished  ; 
the  pitcher  that  has  gone  daily  to  the  fountain,  the  cistern  wheel 
that  so  long  has  mechanically  turned,  at  last  broken  and  useless. 
A  long  string  of  life's  dull  infirmities,  from  all  of  which  realistic 
imagery  must  shrink  as  things  unlovely,  has  been  transformed  into 
a  thing  of  enduring  beauty  by  casting  over  it  the  softening  veil  of 
symbolism. 


BOOK  THIRD 

BIBLICAL    HISTORY    AND   EPIC 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

IX.    EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE 227 

X.    BIBLICAL  HISTORY  IN  ITS  RELATIONS  WITH   BIBLICAL 

EPIC 250 


CHAPTER   IX 

EPIC    POETRY   OF   THE    BIBLE 

IT  has  often  been  said  that  there  is  no  Epic  Poetry  in  the  Bible. 
This  opinion  seems  to  me  to  be  founded  on  a  double  mistake. 
In  part  it  is  a  relic  of  a  discarded  system  of  criti-  The  question  of 
cism  that  did  much  to  distort  the  study  of  literature,  Epic  Poetry  in 
and  at  one  time  went  to  the  extent  of  pronouncing  the  Bible 
Shakespeare  no  dramatist :  —  the  criticism  which  assumed  the 
masterpieces  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature  to  be  the  only  literary 
standards.  Of  course,  those  who  have  formed  their  conception 
of  Epic  solely  on  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  will  look  in  vain  for  poems 
resembling  these  in  the  Bible.  Again,  in  many  minds  epic  poetry 
is  associated  with  fiction ;  and  to  classify  any  portion  of  Sacred 
Scripture  as  epic  will  to  such  persons  appear  a  mode  of  saying 
that  it  is  untrue.  But  this  is  an  entire  misapprehension  of  the 
term.  It  is  one  thing  to  say  that  creative  poetry  is  not,  like  his- 
tory and  philosophy,  tied  to  reality ;  it  is  quite  another  thing  to 
say  that  its  matter  may  not  be  real.  Creative  poetry  is  a  treatment 
which  can  be  applied  alike  to  fact,  to  idealised  fact,  and  to  purely 
imaginative  matter. 

In  our  examination  of  fundamental  literary  forms,1  we  found  that 

the  term  '  Epic '  implied  just  two  things  :  narrative,  in  contrast  with 

dramatic  presentation,  and  creative  treatment,  in  contradistinction 

to  discussion.    Now  more  than  half  the  Bible  consists  of  narrative. 

The  question,  then,  of  Epic  Poetry  in  the  Bible  narrows  itself  to 

this  :  whether  the  whole  of  Biblical  narrative  is  to  be  classified  as 

1  Above,  page  80. 

227 


228  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

history,  or  does  any  part  of  it  make  just  that  appeal  to  our  emo- 
tions and  artistic  sense  which  is  made  by  the  epic  poems  of  secular 
literature  ? 

Let  a  reader  set  himself  to  read  continuously  the  Book  of  Gene- 
sis.    He  will  feel  that  different  parts  of  what  he  is  reading  affect 

his  literary  sense  in  different  ways.  At  one  time 
<ffhEpic  and'ffis-  ne  finds  nimself  traversing  long  genealogical  lists, 
tory  illustrated  or  noting  brief  accounts  of  migrations ;  he  moves 

through  generations  or  centuries  of  time  in  a  few 
verses.  He  reaches  (suppose)  the  name  of  Joseph  :  and  at  once 
all  is  changed.  Ten  lengthy  chapters — in  bulk  equal  to  one-fifth 
of  the  whole  Book  of  Genesis  —  centre  around  this  one  man  and 
his  relations  with  his  brethren.  From  the  beginning  a  striking 
personality  begins  to  emerge,  which  even  in  childhood  divides  the 
household  between  envy  and  doting  affection,  which  makes  itself 
felt  in  captivity  and  even  in  prison.  In  the  background  we  get 
glimpses  of  varied  life  —  scattered  settlements  of  shepherds,  mer- 
chant caravans,  palace  life  in  the  empire  of  Egypt.  Mutation  of 
fortune,  which  plays  so  large  a  part  in  story,  is  represented  by  the 
change  which  in  a  single  day  takes  Joseph  from  prison  to  set  him 
next  to  the  throne;  and  throughout  the  movement  of  events  the 
supernatural  interest  of  dreams  and  their  mystical  revelations  has 
been  hovering.  When  among  the  crowds  that  come  from  distant 
lands  to  ask  corn  from  this  Egyptian  potentate  Joseph's  own 
brethren  stand  before  him,  recognised  but  not  recognising,  then 
we  have  just  one  of  those  ironic  situations  which  make  the  master- 
strokes of  plot.  And  no  invented  plot  could  draw  more  out  of 
such  a  situation  than  we  get  in  this  piece  of  history,  with  the  long- 
sustained  perplexities  in  which  the  Egyptian  minister  involves  his 
family,  not  for  the  purpose  of  some  subtle  revenge,  but  to  prolong 
the  strange  situation  in  which  he  finds  himself  placed,  and  the 
conflict  of  emotions  in  his  breast  between  natural  affection  and 
sense  of  wrong.  At  last  Joseph  breaks  down  in  the  part  he  is 
playing,  and  has  to  sob  out  that  he  is  their  brother ;  and  when 
the  excitement  has  had  time  to  subside,  the  train  of  events  settles 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  229 

to  a  sedate  conclusion  in  the  picturesque  migration  of  the  sons 
of  Israel  into  Egypt,  and  the  patriarchal  blessing  bestowed  on 
Pharaoh  himself.  We  continue  our  reading,  and  find  ourselves 
tracing,  in  bare  outline,  economic  changes  comprised  in  a  verse 
or  two  which  needed  generations  of  time  to  be  accomplished  in 
fact.  It  is  impossible  for  any  one,  reading  with  his  literary  sense 
awakened,  not  to  feel  the  difference  of  kind  between  the  account 
of  Joseph  and  his  Brethren  and  other  portions  of  the  Book  of 
Genesis  preceding  and  following  it :  this  is  the  difference  between 
Epic  and  History.  Joseph,  it  is  true,  is  an  important  historic 
personage,  and  it  is  no  novel  that  we  have  been  reviewing.  But  a 
single  chapter  would  have  been  sufficient  to  present  the  sons  of 
Jacob  as  a  link  in  the  chain  of  history ;  what  more  there  is  in  the 
narrative  must  be  credited  to  interest  of  story.  The  exact  classi- 
fication of  this  portion  of  Genesis  is  expressed  by  the  term  '  Epic 
Incident ' ;  it  is  an  Incident  because  it  is  a  portion  of  the  history  ; 
it  is  Epic  because  the  treatment  of  it  touches  the  imagination  and 
emotions  in  the  regular  way  of  creative  poetry. 

The  historical  books  of  the  Bible  are  full  of  such  Epic  Inci- 
dents. But  they  are  merged  in  the  history  of  which  they  are  a 
part,  without  anything  to  mark  them  off  from  the  surrounding 
matter  which  is  purely  historic.  I  must  not  be  thought  to  insist 
upon  trifles  if  I  recommend  the  student  —  with  the  aid  of  the 
Tables  in  the  Appendix  to  this  work,1  or  otherwise  —  to  pencil  off 
in  his  Revised  Version  the  epic  matter,  and  to  write  in  the  margin 
a  title  to  each  portion.  I  believe  that  an  important  factor  in  lit- 
erary appreciation  is  the  expectant  attitude  of  the  reader ;  and 
one  who  has,"  in  the  way  I  suggest,  adjusted  his  mental  focus  from 
the  outset,  will  be  in  a  specially  favourable  situation  for  feeling  the 
epic  richness  of  Sacred  Scripture. 

When  we  turn  to  survey  the  field  of  Biblical  Epic,  one  phenom- 
enon attracts  our  attention  at  once,  as  being  unique,   No  Verse  Epic  in 
yet  not  difficult  to  understand.     In  secular  litera-   the  Bible 
ture  the  most  famous  epics  are  in  verse.     In  the  Bible  there  is  no 

1  Tables  II,  III.    The  distinctions  are  made  in  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible. 


230  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

verse  narrative.1  But  we  have  seen  that  the  distinction  of  prose 
and  verse  is  not  at  all  coincident  with  the  distinction  between 
poetry  and  its  antithesis.  Again,  we  have  seen  that  it  is  one  of 
the  distinguishing  features  of  Hebrew  that  its  verse  and  prose  sys- 
tems overlap.  When  these  two  considerations  are  put  together,  it 
will  appear  a  natural  thing  that  the  epic  incidents  which  are  scat- 
tered through  the  historical  books  should  gravitate  to  the  literary 
form  of  the  history  in  which  they  constitute  a  minor  part. 

But  though  the  Bible  has  no  Verse  Epic,  it  contains  illustrations 

of  the  interesting  literary  form  that  may  be  called  the  Mixed 

Epic,  in  which  a  story  is  conveyed  in  prose,  but 

has  the  power  of  breaking  into  verse  at  suitable 

points.3    The  grand  example  of  this  Mixed  Epic  is  the  Story  of 

Balaam. 

The  Old  Testament  is  specially  interesting  where  it  lifts  the  veil 
which  separates  the  Chosen  People  from  the  rest  of  the  world, 

and  allows  us  to  see  worshippers  of  Jehovah  out- 
The  Story  of         • 
Balaam  side  the  ranks  of  the  Israelites.     Such  was  Balaam. 

Numbers  xzii-       gut  he  seems  to  have  been  a  light  shining  in  a 

xziv 

dark  place :  surrounded  by  those  who  could  not 
understand  the  worship  of  an  invisible  God,  yet  felt  the  atmos- 
phere of  spiritual  power  that  Balaam  carried  about  with  him,  and 
came  to  look  upon  it  with  awe,  as  a  thing  to  be  dreaded  or  to  be 
secured  on  their  own  side.  Such  a  conception  of  Balaam  had 
been  formed  by  Balak,  king  of  Moab  :  "  I  know  that  he  whom  thou 
blessest  is  blessed,  and  he  whom  thou  cursest  is  cursed."  He 
bethinks  him  of  the  prophet  when  confronted  with  a  new  danger 
threatening  his  kingdom  :  danger  from  a  people  moving  through 
the  desert  at  once  prolific  and  highly  organised,  threatening  to 
swallow  up  the  Moabites  "as  the  ox  licketh  up  the  grass  of  the 

1  Of  course,  in  the  lyric  narratives  of  Chapter  V  the  narrative  is  not  being  told 
or  conveyed,  but  assumed  and  meditated  on. 

2  In  early  literature  of  story  this  form  had  a  wide  range.    See  a  note  on  the 
'  cantifables '  in  Mr.  Jacobs's  English  Fairy  Tales,  page  240.     In  modern  poetry  this 
form  is  admirably  represented  by  William  Morris's  Roots  of  the  Mountains  and 
House  of  the  Wolfings. 


EPIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE  231 

field."  So  Balak  sends  an  embassy  of  princes  to  Balaam,  "with 
the  rewards  of  divination  in  their  hand."  The  central  interest 
of  this,  as  of  most  epics,  is  the  personality  of  its  hero.  The  char- 
acter of  Balaam  seems  to  be  summed  up  in  calling  him  a  man  of 
compromise  in  spiritual  matters.  Perfectly  sincere  in  his  worship 
of  Jehovah,  he  nevertheless  desires  to  keep  in  touch  with  those 
who  can  only  translate  his  spiritual  religion  into  gross  and  material 
conceptions.  He  has  laid  down  for  himself  a  compromise  :  he 
will  never  be  unfaithful  to  a  distinct  Divine  word,  —  and  in  fact  to 
this  he  never  is  unfaithful,  —  but  where  not  prohibited  he  will  go  as 
far  as  he  can  with  the  world  about  him,  and  make  all  he  can  out 
of  them.  This  is  the  man  to  whom  the  embassy  of  Balak  comes. 
He  lodges  the  Moabite  princes  with  oriental  hospitality ;  and  in 
the  darkness  of  the  night  he  gives  himself  up  to  the  spiritual  influ- 
ences from  which  he  is  wont  to  seek  guidance.  The  revelation 
comes,  apparently  in  the  form  of  dream;  and  on  the  morrow 
Balaam  dismisses  his  visitors  without  hesitation  :  his  God  will  not 
suffer  him  to  obey  the  summons. 

To  Balak  all  this  seems  no  more  than  a  diviner's  artifice  to 
increase  his  consequence.  He  accordingly  sends  a  second  em- 
bassy, more  princes  and  more  honourable,  with  an  urgent  message 
and  unbounded  offers.  Balaam  receives  this  second  embassy  with 
noble  words,  which  his  subsequent  conduct  showed  to  be  no  idle 
boast :  "  If  Balak  would  give  me  his  house  full  of  silver  and  gold, 
I  cannot  go  beyond  the  word  of  the  LORD  my  God,  to  do  less  or 
more."  But  he  lodges  the  ambassadors  for  the  night.  Whether 
or  not  his  spirit  was  clouded  by  the  prospects  held  out  to  him, 
the  revelation  of  that  night's  dream  appeared  to  wear  an  air  of 
compromise :  he  would  accompany  the  embassy,  but  with  the 
distinct  understanding  that  he  should  speak  only  as  his  God 
should  direct  him. 

So  we  have  the  famous  journey  of  Balaam  to  Moab.  Mystic 
hindrances  stop  his  way,  until  he  would  fain  turn  back.  But  from 
the  lips  of  the  angel  he  receives  the  words  of  his  own  compromise  : 
he  must  go,  but  speak  only  as  he  is  bidden.  At  a  border  city  the 


232  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

king  of  Moab  meets  the  prophet,  and  chides  him  for  his  delay. 
But  Balaam  is  strong  in  the  line  of  action  he  has  laid  down  for 
himself :  "  Lo,  I  am  come  unto  thee  :  have  I  now  any  power  at 
all  to  speak  anything?  the  word  that  God  putteth  in  my  mouth 
that  shall  I  speak."  Nevertheless  he  will  go  as  far  as  he  can : 
by  his  direction  the  preliminary  ritual  is  commenced,  the  seven 
altars  erected,  and  the  seven  bullocks  and  rams  offered  in  due 
form  by  the  princes  of  Moab.  Balaam  himself  ascends  "  a  bare 
height "  to  be  alone  in  communion  with  his  God,  while  the  king 
and  princes  stand  by  the  altars ;  and  from  the  high  ground  where 
all  this  is  taking  place  the  whole  length  and  breadth  of  the  Israeli- 
tish  encampment  is  visible  in  the  desert  below.  Amid  the  influ- 
ences of  the  solitude  and  the  spectacle  beneath  him  Balaam  feels 
the  rush  of  inspiration  coming  upon  him ;  in  the  simple  phrase 
of  Scripture,  God  "put  a  word  in  his  mouth."  He  returns  to 
confront  the  king  and  princes ;  and  at  this  point  the  prose  of 
narrative  gives  place  to  the  rhythmic  verse  which  is  to  convey  the 
Divine  message. 

From  Aram  hath  Balak  brought  me, 

The  king  of  Moab  from  the  mountains  of  the  East : 
"  Come,  curse  me  Jacob, 

And  come,  defy  Israel." 

How  shall  I  curse,  whom  God  hath  not  cursed? 

And  how  shall  I  defy,  whom  the  LORD  hath  not  defied? 
For  from  the  top  of  the  rocks  I  see  him, 

And  from  the  hills  I  behold  him : 
Lo,  it  is  a  people  that  dwell  alone, 

And  shall  not  be  reckoned  among  the  nations. 
Who  can  count  the  dust  of  Jacob, 

Or  number  the  fourth  part  of  Israel? 
Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous, 

And  let  my  last  end  be  like  his ! 

The  king  and  princes  are  overwhelmed  with  confusion :  the 
prophet  summoned  to  curse  has  altogether  blessed  the  enemy ! 
But  Balaam  calmly  answers,  "  Must  I  not  take  heed  to  speak  that 
which  the  LORD  putteth  in  my  mouth?  " 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  233 

To  Balak  only  one  explanation  seems  possible  :  the  prophet  in 
his  ecstatic  state  has  been  overawed  by  the  vastness  of  the  enemy's 
forces.  The  desired  end  must  be  secured  by  cunning.  Balaam 
shall  be  taken  to  a  point  from  which  only  a  corner  of  the  Israeli- 
tish  camp  is  visible ;  enough,  according  to  magic  lore,  to  lodge 
a  curse  upon,  but  too  small  to  affect  the  beholder's  nerves.  The 
man  of  compromise  goes  as  far  as  he  can  with  popular  supersti- 
tion; he  accompanies  the  king  and  his  suite  to  the  heights  of 
Pisgah,  he  gives  orders  for  the  renewal  of  the  sacrifices,  and  him- 
self goes  apart,  with  some  faint  idea  of  persuading  Jehovah  into 
returning  an  oracle  in  conformity  with  his  prophet's  material 
interests.  But  no  sooner  is  Balaam  alone  with  his  God  than  the 
unreality  of  the  whole  proceeding  makes  itself  felt  by  him ;  his 
soul  is  strung  up  to  its  true  level  as  he  returns  to  face  the  Moa- 
bites.  A  second  time  the  poem  breaks  from  prose  into  verse. 

Rise  up,  Balak,  and  hear; 

Hearken  unto  me,  thou  son  of  Zippor : 

God  is  not  a  man,  that  he  should  lie; 

Neither  the  son  of  man,  that  he  should  repent : 
Hath  he  said,  and  shall  he  not  do  it  ? 

Or  hath  he  spoken,  and  shall  he  not  make  it  good? 
Behold,  I  have  received  commandment  to  bless : 

And  he  hath  blessed,  and  I  cannot  reverse  it. 
He  hath  not  beheld  iniquity  in  Jacob, 

Neither  hath  he  seen  perverseness  in  Israel: 
The  LORD  his  God  is  with  him, 

And  the  shout  of  a  king  is  among  them. 
God  bringeth  them  forth  out  of  Egypt; 

He  hath  as  it  were  the  strength  of  the  wild-ox. 
Surely  there  is  no  enchantment  against  Jacob, 

Neither  is  there  any  divination  against  Israel : 

Now  shall  it  be  said  of  Jacob  and  of  Israel,  What  hath  God  wrought ! 
Behold,  the  people  riseth  up  as  a  lioness, 

And  as  a  lion  doth  he  lift  himself  up : 
He  shall  not  lie  down  until  he  eat  of  the  prey, 

And  drink  the  blood  of  the  slain. 


234  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND   EPIC 

"  Neither  curse  them  at  all,  nor  bless  them  at  all ! "     But  Balaam 
has  only  one  answer :  all  that  the  LORD  speaketh  he  must  do. 

At  all  hazards  another  attempt  must  be  made.  Even  Balak  has 
begun  to  understand  that  there  is  some  real  power  restraining 
Balaam ;  but  if  the  prophet  will  accompany  him  to  a  third  point 
of  view,  "  peradventure  it  will  please  God  "  that  the  enemy  shall 
be  cursed  from  thence.  The  instinct  of  compromise  carries 
Balaam  to  this  third  ceremony,  but  he  has  no  heart  to  play  his 
ignoble  part  to  its  conclusion.  He  does  not,  as  before,  go  aside 
to  meditate  his  answer,  but  listlessly  turns  his  face  towards  the 
wilderness.  It  happens  that  from  where  he  is  standing  his  eye 
just  catches  the  long  lines  of  tents  stretching,  row  after  row,  with 
the  regularity  that  distinguished  the  highly  organised  Israelites 
from  the  tumultuous  hordes  of  desert  nomads.  The  divine  prin- 
ciple of  order  sinks  deep  in  Balaam's  soul,  and  inspires  his  song 
as  he  turns  to  face  for  a  third  time  the  king  and  princes  of  Moab. 

Balaam  the  son  of  Beor  saith, 

And  the  man  whose  eye  is  opened  saith : 

He  saith,  which  heareth  the  words  of  God, 

Which  seeth  the  vision  of  the  Almighty, 

Falling  down,  and  having  his  eyes  open : 

How  goodly  are  thy  tents,  O  Jacob, 

Thy  tabernacles,  O  Israel ! 
As  valleys  are  they  spread  forth, 

As  gardens  by  the  river  side, 
As  lign-aloes  which  the  LORD  hath  planted, 

As  cedar  trees  beside  the  waters. 
Water  shall  flow  from  his  buckets, 

And  his  seed  shall  be  in  many  waters, 
And  his  king  shall  be  higher  than  Agag, 

And  his  kingdom  shall  be  exalted. 
God  bringeth  him  forth  out  of  Egypt; 

He  hath  as  it  were  the  strength  of  the  wild-ox : 
He  shall  eat  up  the  nations  his  adversaries, 

And  shall  break  their  bones  in  pieces, 

And  smite  them  through  with  his  arrows. 
He  couched,  he  lay  down  as  a  lion, 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  235 

And  as  a  lioness;  who  shall  rouse  him  up? 
Blessed  be  every  one  that  blesseth  thee, 

And  cursed  be  every  one  that  curseth  thee. 

The  Moabite  king  storms  with  rage  and  disappointment,  and  dis- 
misses the  prophet  with  a  sneer :  "  The  LORD  hath  kept  thee  back 
from  honour."  But  instead  of  quailing  before  the  royal  indigna- 
tion, Balaam  forces  Balak  to  endure  another  outpouring  of  pro- 
phetic inspiration,  as  he  beholds  a  star  arising  out  of  Jacob,  before 
which  Moab  shall  be  smitten,  and  the  sons  of  tumult  shall  be 
broken  down ;  his  eye  traverses  the  horizon  and  sees  one  people 
after  another  involved  in  the  coming  destruction ;  not  the  Kenites 
in  their  rocks,  nor  Amalek  first  of  nations,  shall  be  able  to  resist. 

Alas,  who  shall  live  when  God  doeth  this? 

Then  Balaam  returns  to  his  country,  and  the  Epic  of  Balaam  is 
concluded.  But  Balaam  does  not  disappear  from  the  history ;  and 
we  learn  how  the  man  of  compromise  was  caught  in  the  meshes 
of  his  own  compromising  spirit.1  At  some  time  when  the  spiritual 
enlightenment  was  not  upon  him  he  brought  himself  to  give  the 
counsel  that  the  people,  who  were  too  strong  to  be  conquered  by 
force,  might  yet  be  undermined  by  lust.  Lustful  intercourse  led 
in  its  turn  to  war;  and  the  name  of  Balaam  the  son  of  Beor 
appears  in  the  list  of  the  slain. 

Apart  from  the  question  of  prose  or  verse  as  its  medium  of 

expression,  Epic  Poetry  may  be  classified  accord- 

•  t  /•  i  a     -r  Cla.ssiflca.tion  of 

ing  to  degrees  of  organic  completeness.2     In  secu-  Epic  Poetry 

lar  literature  there  are,  from  this  point  of  view, 
three  forms  of  epic.  There  is  the  simple,  isolated  story,  usually 
called  a  '  Ballad.'  Then  there  is  the  '  Cycle '  or  aggregation  of 
separate  stories  attributed  to  the  same  hero  :  an  Achilles  cycle,  or 
Ulysses  cycle.  Finally  there  is  the  weaving  of  a  multiplicity  of 
incident  into  one  organic  plot,  as  when  the  genius  of  an  individual 
poet  makes  out  of  the  Achilles  cycle  an  Iliad,  or  out  of  the  cycle 

1  Compare  Numbers  xxxi.  8,  Revelation  ii.  14. 

2  Compare  throughout  Table  III  in  Appendix  II. 


236  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

of  Ulysses  an  Odyssey.     It  is  to  the  last  only  that  the  term  '  Epic' 
is  usually  applied.     Biblical  Epic  exhibits  analogies  to  all  three 

types.  The  simple  independent  Story  is  exempli- 
(i)  Epic  Stories  . .  ,  .  ,  „,  . 

ned  by  such  an  incident  as  that  of  Cam  and  Abel 

in  primitive  history,  or  in  later  history  by  the  Story  of  Gideon  or 
Jephthah.  Again,  great  part  of  Genesis  is  occupied 
with  Cycles  of  Stories  attaching  to  the  names  of  the 

great  patriarchs,  —  an  Abraham  cycle,  a  cycle  of  Jacob,  and  others. 

And   the  Story  of  Joseph  and   his  Brethren   has 
/  (3)  Bpic  Histories  ,  '  .  . 

already  been  used  to  illustrate  the  complete  Epic 

History,  with  its  wide  reach  of  incidents  bound  together  into  one 
organic  whole. 

The  most  elaborate  of  these  Epic  Histories  is  the  Book  of 
Esther.     This,  in  addition  to  every  other  element 

Esther*0*  °^  mterest>  nas  wnat  may  be  called  a  double  plot : 

two  distinct  trains  of  events,  centring  around 
Esther  herself  and  Mordecai  respectively,  are  woven  together  into 
a  complex  story.  The  opening  of  the  book  plunges  us  into  the 
life  and  manners  of  an  oriental  empire,  with  its  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  provinces  of  varying  races  and  speech,  its  government  by 
irresponsible  despotism,  and  its  court  etiquette,  the  violation  of 
which  is  punishable  with  death.  We  have  a  picture  of  festivities 
on  a  scale  proportionate  to  the  empire  itself — pageantry  lasting 
half  a  year,  and  for  climax  a  continuous  feast  of  seven  days.  The 
king's  drunken  impulse  to  send  for  Queen  Vashti  to  appear  before 
his  lords,  her  refusal  and  solemn  deposition  from  the  throne,  and 
the  elaborate  preparations  for  choosing  a  successor  which  end  in 
the  elevation  to  the  crown  of  a  Jewish  maiden  Esther,  are  detailed 
with  minuteness.  The  general  effect  of  this  introductory  part  is 
to  make  an  oriental  atmosphere  for  the  reader's  mind,  by  which  he 
is  the  better  able  to  appreciate  all  that  follows. 

The  movement  of  the  story  begins  with  the  mention  of  Haman. 
Despotism  is  never  so  despotic  as  when  it  takes  a  private  subject 
and  elevates  him  to  its  own  rank,  demanding  for  him,  by  no  title 
but  that,  of  royal  favour,  the  homage  which  is  paid  to  the  king  by 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  237 

prescriptive  right.  Such  elevation  was  accorded  by  Ahasuerus  to 
Haman  :  and  the  whole  empire  obediently  bowed  down.  A  single 
individual  was  found  to  resist :  the  Jew  Mordecai,  who  had  made 
his  kinswoman  and  adopted  daughter  a  queen,  but  for  himself  was 
content  to  watch  over  her  from  a  distance,  as  one  of  those  who 
sat  in  the  king's  gate.  Officials  of  the  court  sought  in  vain  to 
move  Mordecai,  and  at  last  had  to  make  his  stubborn  resistance 
known  to  Haman.  The  offended  favourite  "  thought  scorn  to  lay 
hands  on  Mordecai  himself" :  nothing  less  would  satisfy  his 
oriental  spirit  of  vengeance  than  to  destroy  the  whole  people  to 
which  Mordecai  belonged  throughout  the  empire  of  Ahasuerus. 
To  make  the  destruction  more  dramatic,  a  day  is  chosen  by  lot  for 
simultaneous  slaughter.  To  the  king  Haman  uses  two  arguments  : 
the  diversity  of  the  Jews  in  laws  and  customs  from  all  other  peo- 
ples, and  the  treasure  of  silver  he  will  himself  pay  into  the  king's 
treasury  if  his  petition  be  granted.  But  Haman  is  at  the  height 
of  favour  with  the  king,  who  bids  him  take  the  people  and  the 
silver  too.  The  complex  machinery  of  the  empire  is  set  in  motion, 
and  despatches  sent  in  every  direction.  Then,  we  are  told,  "  the 
king  and  Haman  sat  down  to  drink,  but  the  city  of  Shushan  was 
perplexed." 

We  have  been  following  one  side  of  the  story ;  but  the  other 
centre  of  interest,  Queen  Esther,  is  involved  in  the  conspiracy 
thus  set  on  foot ;  and  the  mourning  of  Mordecai  and  the  city  soon 
makes  the  Queen  aware  of  the  peril  hanging  over  her  people,  for 
whom  there  seems  to  be  no  help  but  through  herself.  There  is 
something  very  attractive  to  the  imagination  in  the  situation  in 
which  Esther  is  thus  placed.  The  strongest  and  most  mature 
of  men  will  feel  his  nature  tasked  to  its  depths  by  a  summons  to 
rest  his  life  and  all  upon  a  single  crisis.  But  such  a  summons 
comes  in  this  case  to  a  girl,  in  beauty  found  fairest  after  an  empire 
has  been  searched,  in  the  first  flush  of  her  youth,  with  life  just 
opening  before  her  as  a  vista  of  softness  and  luxury.  Her  mo- 
mentary hesitation  only  makes  her  seem  more  human.  But  when 
the  extremity  of  the  crisis  is  urged  upon  her,  with  the  suggestion 


23S  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

that  she  may  have  come  to  the  kingdom  for  such  a  time  as  this, 
she  nerves  herself  to  her  task.  First  she  gives  herself  up  to  fast- 
ing and  prayer ;  then,  with  all  signs  of  fear  suppressed,  she  pre- 
sents herself  in  full  splendour  of  beauty  and  royal  state  before  the 
king,  well  knowing  that  she  may  incur  thereby  the  penalty  of 
death.  For  a  moment  the  fate  of  her  nation  and  herself  trembles 
in  the  balance  :  then  the  sceptre  is  held  out  to  her  and  the  peril- 
ous moment  is  past.  Here  it  is  that  the  character  of  Esther 
begins  to  come  out.  It  might  well  have  been  expected  that,  in 
the  reaction  from  personal  danger,  Esther  might  have  at  once 
cast  herself  before  the  king,  and  with  sobs  and  cries  told  the  afflic- 
tion of  her  people.  This  is  probably  what  Mordecai  meant  her 
to  do.  But  a  girl  has  been  raised  up  to  save  her  people,  and  she 
must  do  it  in  her  own  girlish  way ;  and  accordingly,  when  she  is 
asked  her  petition  and  request  unto  the  half  of  the  kingdom,  the 
answer  reveals  no  court  intrigue,  but  a  simple  childlike  invitation 
that  the  king  and  Haman  may  come  to  a  banquet  that  she  will 
prepare.  Ahasuerus  is  delighted :  he  had  deposed  Vashti  for 
refusing  his  summons  to  an  orgie,  her  successor  is  one  to  risk  her 
life  on  an  invitation  to  a  banquet.  The  enemy  is  disarmed  from 
suspicion.  But,  more  than  all  this,  Esther  knows  well  that  she 
has  to  fight  against  the  whole  power  of  Haman  and  the  king  with 
no  weapon  but  that  of  her  own  beauty  :  instinct  makes  her  realise 
that  she  must  give  that  beauty  full  opportunity  to  make  itself  felt. 
The  banquet  takes  place,  with  the  king  and  Haman  as  the  sole 
guests.  Though  she  had  been  crowned  as  the  fairest  in  the  king- 
dom, yet  for  thirty  days  before  this  the  charms  of  Esther  had 
been  entirely  forgotten  by  the  royal  voluptuary  amid  other  dis- 
tractions of  pleasure.  Now  the  dominion  of  beauty  can  make  its 
sway  prevail  over  Ahasuerus,  and  at  the  end  of  the  feast  he  again 
asks  his  Queen  what  is  her  petition  and  request.  But  Esther  is 
strong  enough  to  wait,  and  make  surety  yet  more  sure.  She  begs 
therefore  for  a  second  banquet  on  the  morrow  with  the  same  two 
guests,  and  by  that  time  she  will  have  a  boon  to  ask.  Haman 
leaves  the  palace  at  the  height  of  blind  security.  In  the  gate  his 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  239 

spirits  feel  a  rebuff  at  the  sight  of  the  unbending  Mordecai :  a  first 
speck  of  shadow  upon  his  horizon  of  fortune.  He  hurries  home, 
and  in  family  council  details  his  accumulated  honours  and  his  one 
drop  of  bitterness.  They  bid  him  build  a  gallows  fifty  cubits  high, 
and  ask  Mordecai's  life  at  once  without  waiting  for  the  slower  fate 
of  his  nation. 

Two  days  and  the  night  that  separates  them  make  up  the  period 
of  crisis  for  this  story  of  Esther.  The  turning-point  of  the  whole 
is  found  in  the  words  :  "  On  that  night  could  not  the  king  sleep." 
They  read  to  the  restless  king  the  chronicles  of  his  kingdom ;  and 
the  particular  passage  details  how  a  conspiracy  against  his  life  was 
revealed  by  one  Mordecai,  a  Jew.  Ahasuerus  enquires  what  honour 
has  been  done  to  this  Mordecai  in  recompense ;  and  hearing  that 
nothing  has  been  done,  the  king  will  take  up  the  matter  at  once. 
Haman  is  entering  in  the  early  morning  to  beg  the  life  of  the  Jew, 
who  refuses  to  bow  down  before  him,  when  the  king  shouts  to 
him  from  his  bed  the  question,  "What  shall  be  done  unto  the 
man  whom  the  king  delighteth  to  honour?"  It  is  impossible  for 
Haman  to  understand  this  otherwise  than  as  a  salutation  to  him- 
self ;  and  in  reply  advises  a  royal  progress  with  a  chief  prince  to 
proclaim  before  the  fortunate  man  the  king's  purpose  to  honour 
him.  He  is  bidden  to  carry  out  his  advice  without  omission  of 
a  single  article  upon  Mordecai.  So  bitterly  has  nemesis  swung 
round  upon  him  that  Haman  is  forced  with  his  own  lips  to  pro- 
claim the  honours  of  his  hated  foe.  And  when,  after  the  ordeal 
is  over,  he  rushes  home  to  his  family  council  for  comfort,  here, 
where  he  feels  most  secure,  he  is  forced  to  see  the  shadow  of 
doom  deepening  over  him ;  for  his  wife  and  councillors  make 
answer : 

If  Mordecai,  before  whom  thou  hast  begun  to  fall,  be  of  the  seed 
of  the  Jews,  thou  shalt  not  prevail  against  him,  but  shall  surely  fall 
before  him. 

But  before  he  has  time  to  ponder  these  words  the  royal  escort 
summons  him  to  Esther's  banquet. 


240  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

The  second  banquet  intensifies  the  effect  of  the  first,  and 
Ahasuerus  is  completely  under  the  spell  of  Esther's  beauty  when, 
for  the  third  time,  he  asks  her  to  name  her  petition  and  request. 
The  youthful  queen  has  been  all  this  time  holding  a  crisis  of  his- 
tory in  her  delicate  fingers.  Now  she  lets  the  thunderbolt  fall. 
Her  petition  is  her  own  life,  and  the  life  of  her  people,  sold,  to 
the  king's  damage,  by  "this  wicked  Haman."  The  stricken 
favourite  grovels  before  the  king's  burst  of  fury,  and  is  seeking 
the  injured  Jewess  as  an  intercessor,  when  he  is  hurried  away  to 
the  gallows  he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai.  The  crisis  is  past, 
and  Mordecai  is  elevated  to  the  dignity  from  which  his  foe  had 
fallen.  But  there  is  still  the  decree  against  the  Jews  throughout 
the  empire,  enrolled  among  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians 
that  cannot  be  altered,  and  the  date  of  their  doom  is  steadily 
advancing.  Mordecai's  plan  is  to  send  another  decree  after  the 
first,  to  the  effect  that  the  Jews  on  the  day  appointed  shall  have 
full  power  to  defend  themselves.  So  when  the  day  of  fate  arrives, 
this  is  the  situation  throughout  the  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
provinces  of  the  empire  :  on  one  side  are  the  enemies  of  the  Jews 
armed  with  the  king's  irreversible  decree  to  massacre  them ;  on 
the  other  side  are  the  Jews  armed  with  the  king's  irreversible 
decree  to  defend  themselves ;  and  the  satraps  and  princes  of  the 
provinces  will  know  which  side  to  take  in  the  fray  now  that  a  Jew 
is  minister  of  the  empire.  It  becomes  a  day  of  slaughter  for  the 
enemies  of  the  Jews  throughout  the  provinces  and  the  royal  city ; 
and  our  last  sight  of  Esther  reveals  her  as  a  beautiful  incarnation 
of  vengeance,  petitioning  for  another  day  of  slaughter.  But  this 
is  the  passing  excitement  of  the  crisis,  the  passionate  justice  of 
one  trained  in  the  law  of  retaliation.  ^Vhen  the  ordinary  current 
of  events  is  resumed,  a  feast  is  instituted  throughout  the  villages 
and  towns  of  the  Jews,  in  which  they  are  to  send  portions  one  to 
another  and  gifts  to  the  poor,  as  they  commemorate  their  nation 
saved  from  destruction  by  the  wisdom  of  Mordecai  and  the  beauty 
of  Esther. 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  241 

So  far  the  literature  we  have  treated  has  been  Epic  Poetry  in 
the  strictest  sense.     There  are,  however,  two  other  types  to  be 
noted.     The  Idyl  is  not  a  distinct  literary  form, 
but  a  modification  of  other  forms ;  and  the  Bible  M°diflcations  of 

EplC 

contains  an  Epic  Idyl  as  well  as  a  Lyric  Idyl.1 

Again,  the  great  department  of  Prophecy  has  one  branch  which  is 

specially  connected  with  Epic  Poetry. 

If  the  chief  distinction  of  the  Idyl  be  its  subject  matter  of  love 
and  domestic  life,  then  in  all  literature  there  is  no  more  typical 
Idyl  than  the  Book  of  Ruth.  Following  the  Book 
of  Judges,  which  has  been  filled  with  bloodshed 
and  violence  and  the  heroism  of  the  sterner  virtues, 
it  comes  upon  us  like  a  benediction  of  peace.  It  contains  no 
trace  of  war  or  high  politics ;  the  disasters  of  its  story  are  the 
troubles  of  family  life  —  exile,  bereavement,  poverty;  while  its 
grand  incidents  are  no  more  than  the  yearly  festivities  of  country 
life,  and  the  formal  transfers  of  property  that  must  go  on  although 
kingdoms  rise  and  fall. 

The  thread  running  through  the  whole,  and  binding  the  parts 
together,  is  found  in  a  magnetic  personality  such  as  may  exist  in 
the  quietest  life,  leaving  no  achievements  behind  it,  yet  in  its  time 
swaying  all  who  approach  it.  Elimelech  the  husband,  and  his  two 
sons,  are  no  more  than  names  to  us ;  it  is  Naomi  who  is  remem- 
bered in  Bethlehem  when  the  family  have  been  long  in  exile ;  and 
when  she  returns,  the  whole  of  the  rural  city  is  moved  at  the 
thought  of  the  '  Pleasant  One '  —  the  famous  beauty  of  former 
years  —  come  back  again.  Naomi  herself  feels  the  bitter  irony  of 
a  name  that  speaks  of  attractiveness :  "  Call  me  not  Naomi,  call 
me  Mara,  for  the  Almighty  hath  dealt  very  bitterly  with  me." 
.  Three  waves  of  trouble  had  passed  over  her  since  she  had  wedded 
the  husband  of  her  youth.  First  came  famine  :  Elimelech's  land 
would  yield  no  living,  and  husband,  wife,  and  two  youthful  sons 
had  to  migrate  into  the  land  of  Moab,  where  exile  meant  not  only 
change  of  climate  and  people,  but  isolation  in  religion,  with  wor- 

1  See  above,  note  on  page  208. 


242  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

shippers  of  strange  gods  all  around.  There  they  continued  to 
live  until  Elimelech  died,  and  Naomi  was  left  alone  to  watch  over 
her  growing  sons.  She  must,  moreover,  in  this  land  of  strangers 
find  wives  for  these  youths  ;  for  to  live  over  again  in  posterity  was 
the  only  immortality  to  which  in  their  daily  thoughts  the  families 
of  Israel  would  give  much  heed.  Ten  years  of  such  life  was 
allowed  to  Naomi,  and  then  the  third  blow  came  with  the  loss  of 
her  two  sons,  one  after  another,  while  no  children  had  yet  been 
born  to  continue  their  line.  Broken  by  misfortunes,  and  with  no 
link  now  to  bind  her  to  her  Moabitish  home,  Naomi  sets  out  to 
return  to  the  land  of  Judah.  Her  daughters-in-law,  though  of 
foreign  race,  yet  have  felt  the  spell  of  her  attraction,  and  would 
fain  accompany  her ;  but  she  will  not  involve  their  young  lives  in 
the  dark  fate  which  heaven  seems  to  have  marked  out  for  herself : 
"  It  grieveth  me  much  for  your  sakes,  for  the  hand  of  the  LORD  is 
gone  forth  against  me."  Situations  like  this  make  the  dividing 
points  of  character ;  and  a  contrast  of  character  is  fully  depicted 
to  us  in  the  simple  verse  :  "  And  Orpah  kissed  her  mother-in-law ; 
but  Ruth  clave  unto  her."  The  strong  and  sweet  Naomi  has 
bound  to  herself  another  character  like  her  own,  with  a  bond  no 
trouble  can  break ;  and  the  musical  speech  of  Ruth  has  descended 
to  us  as  the  formula  of  personal  devotion  for  all  time. 

Intreat  me  not  to  leave  thee,  and  to  return  from  following  after 
thee:  for  whither  thou  goest,  I  will  go;  and  where  thou  lodgest,  I  will 
lodge :  thy  people  shall  be  my  people,  and  thy  God  my  God :  where 
thou  diest,  will  I  die,  and  there  will  I  be  buried :  the  LORD  do  so  to 
me,  and  more  also,  if  aught  but  death  part  thee  and  me. 

So  the  ageing  Naomi  and  her  Moabite  daughter-in-law  return  to 
Bethlehem,  and,  after  creating  a  momentary  flutter  of  excitement, 
settle  down  to  a  life  of  obscure  poverty,  with  the  added  bitterness 
to  Naomi  of  seeing  the  family  estate  in  the  hands  of  others. 

Now  the  interest  of  the  idyl  changes  to  the  picturing  of  popular 
manners  and  customs.  We  have  before  us  all  the  bustle  and 
excitement  of  wheat  and  barley  harvest  in  an  agricultural  commu- 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  243 

nity  :  the  progress  of  the  reapers,  and  the  maidens  gleaning  be- 
hind them,  the  common  meal  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  the  master 
coming  down  to  look  on  and  exchanging  greetings  with  his  people. 
We  see  the  stranger  shyly  joining  the  gleaners,  the  story  of  her 
faithfulness  known  to  all  from  the  humblest  reaper  to  Boaz  him- 
self. With  a  strange  charm  there  come  to  us  across  the  gulf  of 
centuries  the  delicate  attentions  shown  to  Ruth  by  all,  the  little 
contrivances  by  which  she  is  made  to  glean  plentifully  without 
knowing  who  has  befriended  her,  the  place  of  honour  accorded 
her  at  the  meal.  No  detail  of  social  life  is  too  petty  for  the  idyl, 
not  even  the  way  in  which  Ruth  eats  her  portion  of  food  till  she  is 
sufficed,  and  what  she  leaves  she  brings  to  her  lonely  mother-in- 
law  at  home.  The  gloomy  day  of  Naomi's  life  is  to  have  light  at 
eventide,  and  the  first  gleam  of  that  light  is  the  name  of  the 
master  who  has  been  so  hospitable :  Boaz  is  recognised  as  one 
near  of  kin,  and  Naomi  rallies  herself  to  the  task  of  seeking  a 
resting-place  for  the  loving  Ruth. 

More  manners  and  customs  follow,  and  those  of  the  quaintest. 
Ruth  follows  exactly  the  instructions  of  Naomi  in  going  through 
the  strange  ritual  by  which  she  must  claim  the  wealthy  and  pow- 
erful landowner  as  next  of  kin.  The  story  is  not  too  short  to  pre- 
vent our  catching  the  tenderness  with  which  Boaz  shields  the 
stranger  from  the  breath  of  gossip,  nor  the  refined  courtesy  by 
which  he  treats  the  great  service  asked  of  him  as  a  favour  done 
to  himself :  "  Blessed  be  thou  of  the  LORD,  my  daughter :  thou 
hast  showed  more  kindness  in  the  latter  end  than  at  the  beginning, 
inasmuch  as  thou  followedst  not  young  men,  whether  poor  or 
rich."  The  scene  changes  to  give  us  the  minutiae  of  legal  pro- 
cedure in  the  gate  of  the  city ;  and  here  again  contrast  of  charac- 
ter appears,  between  the  nameless  kinsman  who  is  ready  to  do 
everything  that  is  just,  and  Boaz,  who  will  go  further  and  be  gen- 
erous. So,  with  all  formalities,  the  land  of  Elimelech  is  redeemed, 
and  Boaz  takes  Ruth  to  wife,  in  order  that,  according  to  the  inter- 
esting Hebrew  law,  the  child  born  to  them  may  be  considered  to 
have  revived  the  line  of  his  grandfather.  The  long  delayed  hap- 


244  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

piness  of  Naomi  becomes  full  as  the  women  of  the  city  move  in 
procession  to  lay  the  new-born  babe  in  her  bosom,  and  sing  to  her 
how  his  name  shall  be  famous  in  Israel :  "  and  he  shall  be  unto 
thee  a  restorer  of  life,  and  a  nourisher  of  thine  old  age :  for  thy 
daughter-in-law,  which  loveth  thee,  which  is  better  to  thee  than 
seven  sons,  hath  borne  him."  And  the  simple  Idyl  in  its  last 
words  joins  itself  on  to  the  main  stream  of  history  by  telling  that 
this  new-born  Obed  was  the  father  of  Jesse,  and  Jesse  was  the 
father  of  King  David  himself. 

•V 

It  remains  to  point  out  that  Biblical  Prophecy,  including  as  it 

does  all  literary  forms,  has  one  branch  which  is  in  character  epic. 

The  Greater  and  Minor  Prophets,  whose  books  of 
Epic  Prophecy 

prophecy  occupy  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  Old 

Testament,  all  date  from  a  period  not  earlier  than  the  reign  of 
Jeroboam  the  Second.  Yet  before  that  period,  from  the  time 
of  Samuel  if  not  earlier,  prophets  played  a  great  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  Israel  and  Judah.  No  name  in  the  roll  of  prophets  will 
seem  higher  than  that  of  Elijah  :  yet  the  Bible  contains  no  '  Book 
of  the  Prophet  Elijah.'  These  earlier  prophets  did  not  write  their 
prophecy ;  they  lived  it.  It  was  conveyed  in  action,  and  its  only 
representation  in  literature  is  the  narrative  of  that  action.  A  fit 
name  then  for  such  literature  is  '  Epic  Prophecy.' 

(1)  Prophetic  This  Epic  Prophecy  exhibits  all  the  three  types 
stories                 Of  Epjc      of  the   isolated  Prophetic  Story  there 
can  be  no  better  illustration  than  the  Story  of  Balaam,  already 

(2)  Prophetic        treated  in  full.     Prophetic  Cycles  are  connected 
Cycles  .     with  the  names  of  Elisha  and  of  Daniel.    The  for- 
mer is  particularly  well  marked,  occupying  seven  successive  chap- 
Cycie  of  Eiisha      ters  with  fourteen  stories,  disconnected  from  one 
n  Kings  ii-viii      another,  but  all  having  Elisha  for  hero.    The  ele- 
ment of  miracle  is  common  to  them  all.     Some  seem  to  have  no 
point  beyond  this  interest  of  miracle :  such  are  the  Story  of  the 
Mocking  Children,  of  the  Feeding  of  a  hundred  men,  of  the  Axe- 
head  that  swam.     Others  are  deeply  interesting  pictures  of  life, 


EPIC  POETRY  OF   THE  BIBLE  245 

like  the  Story  of  Naaman  and  Gehazi,  or  the  Siege  of  Samaria. 
One  of  these  is  so  impressive  in  the  suggestiveness  of  its  miracu- 
lous details,  and  the  lofty  plane  of  morality  to  which  its  conclu- 
sion rises,  that  I  cannot  forbear  from  citing  it  in  full  as  the  very 
ideal  of  Prophetic  Story. 

The  Expedition  to  arrest  Elisha 

Now  the  king  of  Syria  warred  against  Israel ;  and  he  took  counsel 
with  his  servants,  saying,  In  such  and  such  a  place  shall  be  my  camp. 
And  the  man  of  God  sent  unto  the  king  of  Israel,  saying,  Beware  that 
thou  pass  not  such  a  place;  for  thither  the  Syrians  are  coming  down. 
And  the  king  of  Israel  sent  to  the  place  which  the  man  of  God  had 
told  him  and  warned  him  of;  and  he  saved  himself  there,  not  once  nor 
twice.  And  the  heart  of  the  king  of  Syria  was  sore  troubled  for  this 
thing;  and  he  called  his  servants,  and  said  unto  them,  Will  ye  not 
show  me  which  of  us  is  for  the  king  of  Israel?  And  one  of  his  ser- 
vants said,  Nay,  my  lord,  O  king :  but  Elisha,  the  prophet  that  is  in 
Israel,  telleth  the  king  of  Israel  the  words  that  thou  speakest  in  thy 
bedchamber.  And  he  said,  Go  and  see  where  he  is,  that  I  may  send 
and  fetch  him.  And  it  was  told  him,  saying,  Behold,  he  is  in  Dothan. 
Therefore  sent  he  thither  horses,  and  chariots,  and  a  great  host:  and 
they  came  by  night,  and  compassed  the  city  about.  And  when  the  ser- 
vant of  the  man  of  God  was  risen  early,  and  gone  forth,  behold,  an 
host  with  horses  and  chariots  was  round  about  the  city.  And  his 
servant  said  unto  him,  Alas!  my  master,  how  shall  we  do?  And  he 
answered,  Fear  not :  for  they  that  be  with  us  are  more  than  they  that 
be  with  them.  And  Elisha  prayed,  and  said,  LORD,  I  pray  thee,  open 
his  eyes,  that  he  may  see.  And  the  LORD  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
young  man;  and  he  saw:  and,  behold,  the  mountain  was  full  of  horses 
and  chariots  of  fire  round  about  Elisha.  And  when  they  came  down 
to  him,  Elisha  prayed  unto  the  LORD,  and  said,  Smite  this  people, 
I  pray  thee,  with  blindness.  And  he  smote  them  with  blindness 
according  to  the  word  of  Elisha.  And  Elisha  said  unto  them,  This  is 
not  the  way,  neither  is  this  the  city :  follow  me,  and  I  will  bring  you  to 
the  man  whom  ye  seek.  And  he  led  them  to  Samaria.  And  it  came 
to  pass,  when  they  were  come  into  Samaria,  that  Elisha  said,  LORD, 
open  the  eyes  of  these  men,  that  they  may  see.  And  the  LORD  opened 
their  eyes,  and  they  saw;  and,  behold,  they  were  in  the  midst  of 
Samaria.  And  the  king  of  Israel  said  unto  Elisha,  when  he  saw  them, 


246  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

My  father,  shall  I  smite  them?  shall  I  smite  them?  And  he  answered, 
Thou  shalt  not  smite  them  :  wouldest  thou  smite  those  whom  thou  hast 
taken  captive  with  thy  sword  and  with  thy  bow?  set  bread  and  water 
before  them,  that  they  may  eat  and  drink,  and  go  to  their  master.  And 
he  prepared  great  provision  for  them  :  and  when  they  had  eaten  and 
drunk,  he  sent  them  away,  and  they  went  to  their  master.  And  the 
bands  of  Syria  came  no  more  into  the  land  of  Israel. 

There  is  a  third  type  of  Epic  Prophecy,  analogous  to  the  Epic 

Histories  which  combine  a  multiplicity  of  incidents 

g  .   rop  e  into  an  organic  whole.     The  Bible  contains  two 

such    Prophetic   Epics,   connected   with   the   two 

names  of  Elijah  the  Tishbite  and  Jonah. 

The  Book  of  Jonah  is  contained  amongst  the  books  of  the 
Minor  Prophets,  yet  every  reader  feels  how  different  it  is  from  all 
the  rest.     Nahum  and  Jonah  alike  received  a  com- 
0  mission  to   denounce  Nineveh  :    Nahum  gives  us 


the  usual  prophetic  discourse  ;  the  other  book 
contains  no  discourse,  but  describes  the  actions  of  Jonah  precisely 
as  certain  chapters  in  the  Book  of  Kings  describe  the  actions 
of  Elijah.  There  is  another  peculiarity  of  Jonah.  With  other 
prophets  to  hear  is  to  obey.  But  the  Book  of  Jonah  narrates 
the  rebellion  of  the  prophet  against  the  Divine  mandate  even 
more  fully  than  it  describes  his  obedience.  If  such  a  narrative  is 
correctly  described  as  Epic  Prophecy  it  will  follow  that  the  resist- 
ance of  Jonah,  no  less  than  his  obedience,  will  contain  the  revela- 
tion which  it  is  the  province  of  Prophecy  to  impart.  This  seems 
to  be  the  key  to  the  interpretation  of  the  book. 

The  prophecy  opens  with  the  command  to  go  to  Nineveh  and 
denounce  it.  "  But  Jonah  rose  up  to  flee  unto  Tarshish  from  the 
presence  of  the  LORD."  In  picturesque  detail  we  have  the  em- 
barking at  Joppa,  the  "  great  wind  hurled  into  the  sea,"  the  terror 
of  the  mariners,  each  calling  on  his  god.  Jonah,  waked  from 
sleep,  recognises  the  power  of  Jehovah  pursuing  him,  and  humbly 
bows  to  his  fate.  However  reluctantly,  the  mariners  are  at  last 
driven  to  cast  him  overboard.  While  for  them  the  storm  ceases, 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE  BIBLE  247 

Jonah  is  miraculously  swallowed  up — the  detail  of  the  miracle  is 
of  no  significance  —  and  in  no  less  miraculous  manner  restored. 
The  first  part  of  the  book  ends  with  his  song  of  thanksgiving. 

This  series  of  incidents  contains  a  revelation  that  may  seem 
elementary  to  us,  but  was  unquestionably  needed  by  the  times  of 
the  prophet.  I  have  before  had  occasion  to  speak  of  the  primi- 
tive conception  of  Deity  by  which  a  god  was  regarded  as  a  terri- 
torial being,  whose  power  was  limited  by  the  region  in  which  he 
was  worshipped.  That  this  conception  extended  to  the  age  of 
Jonah  is  clear  from  a  verse  in  the  Book  of  Kings, 
which  tells  how  the  servants  of  the  king  of  Syria 
said  of  the  Israelites,  "  Their  god  is  a  god  of  the  hills  ;  therefore 
they  were  stronger  than  we  :  but  let  us  fight  against  them  in  the 
plain,  and  surely  we  shall  be  stronger  than  they."  In  this  prophecy 
the  same  notion  appears  in  the  way  the  mariners  —  no  doubt  vary- 
ing in  race  and  country  —  call  each  upon  his  god  ;  it  appears  still 
more  strikingly  in  the  accession  of  terror  brought  to  them  amid 
the  tossing  of  the  waves  by  Jonah's  saying  that  his  God  was  the 
creator  of  land  and  sea.  Nay,  the  same  idea  is  seen  to  have 
affected  the  prophet  himself.  No  doubt  Jonah  was  blessed  with 
a  higher  revelation  of  God.  But  the  history  of  all  religions  makes 
it  plain  that  the  acceptance  of  a  higher  conception  does  not  so 
far  obliterate  older  conceptions  but  that  they  can  influence  con- 
duct at  times.  And  it  is  clear  that  the  old  notion  of  God  as  the 
God  of  a  particular  land  was  moving  Jonah's  purposes  when  he 
set  out  for  the  far  west  "from  the  presence  of  Jehovah."  Waking 
to  the  tempest,  he  recognised  Jehovah's  power  as  extending  through 
heaven,  and  the  sea,  and  the  dry  land  ;  and  the  double  miracle 
wrought  upon  himself  of  judgment  and  deliverance  brought  this 
revelation  to  its  climax. 

The  narrative  continues.  A  second  commission  is  immediately 
obeyed,  and  Jonah  journeys  through  the  vast  city,  crying,  "  Yet 
forty  days,  and  Nineveh  shall  be  overthrown."  Like  an  account 
of  some  infection  spreading  through  a  great  centre  of  population 
reads  the  description  of  the  city  of  Nineveh  repenting  in  sackcloth 


248  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

and  with  "  mighty  cries."  The  repentance  is  genuine,  is  accepted 
by  God,  and  the  destruction  does  not  come.  Jonah  is  "dis- 
pleased exceedingly."  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  displeasure  of 
Jonah  is  no  mere  ebullition  of  temper.  With  the  impulsive  sin- 
cerity of  his  character  he  lays  his  complaint  before  God ;  and  it 
seems  to  be  with  some  hope  of  having  moved  Jehovah  from  his 
purpose  of  mercy  that  Jonah  makes  his  booth,  and  sits  watching 
"  till  he  might  see  what  would  become  of  the  city."  Burned  by 
the  sun  without  and  prophetic  anger  within,  Jonah  is  suddenly 
aware  of  a  '  gourd-plant '  which  with  swift  growth  has  shot  up  to 
screen  him,  and  he  comes  to  love  it  for  its  beauty  and  grateful 
shadow.  In  a  single  night  a  worm  gnaws  the  gourd,  and  by  morn- 
ing it  is  withered  and  fallen.  Soon  sultry  wind  and  direct  blaze 
of  sun  drive  Jonah  to  physical  exhaustion ;  more  than  that,  "  he 
does  well  to  be  angry  "  :  the  lovely  gourd  smitten  by  the  foul 
worm  seems  to  him  a  blot  on  God's  providence.  Then  comes 
the  Divine  message. 

Thou  hast  had  pity  on  the  gourd,  for  the  which  thou  hast  not  laboured, 
neither  madest  it  grow;  which  came  up  in  a  night,  and  perished  in  a 
night:  and  should  not  I  have  pity  on  Nineveh,  that  great  city;  wherein 
are  more  than  six  score  thousand  persons  that  cannot  discern  between 
their  right  hand  and  their  left  hand;  and  also  much  cattle? 

What  is  the  prophetic  revelation  underlying  this  latter  part  of 
the  book?  Not,  as  some  would  have  it,  the  lovingkindness  of 
Jehovah  and  his  forgiveness  of  the  repentant :  for  this  Jonah 
expressly  declares  he  has  known  from  the  first.  But  this 
glorious  mercy  of  Jehovah  the  prophet  had  conceived  as 
the  heritage  of  the  Hebrew  people ;  he  watches  with  indignation 
its  extension  to  the  heathen.  As  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  proph- 
ecy he  was  led  to  see  that  Divine  power  was  not  confined  to  the 
land  of  Israel,  but  that  the  dominion  of  Jehovah  extended  over 
the  universe,  so  now  he  is  to  be  taught  that  the  supremacy  of 
mercy  over  judgment  is  an  attribute  of  God  in  which  all  races 
may  feel  that  they  have  an  interest.  There  is  more  than  this. 


EPIC  POETRY  OF  THE   BIBLE  249 

Even  Jonah  would  not  have  challenged  the  authority  of  God  to 
forgive  Nineveh ;  only  he  claimed  for  himself  the  right  to  disso- 
ciate himself  from  such  mercy :  he  did  well  to  be  angry.  To 
entwine  his  affections  about  the  simplest  work  of  creation  —  a 
plant,  and  then  to  wound  those  affections  by  roughly  destroying  it : 
this  was  the  object  lesson  by  means  of  which  the  prophet  was  to 
be  admitted  into  the  commencement  of  communion  with  the  world- 
wide sympathy  of  Deity.  To  raise  men's  thoughts  from  the  nar- 
row conception  of  a  local  god  to  the  vision  of  an  Omnipotence 
exercising  dominion  over  the  universe ;  then  to  extend  to  the 
whole  human  race  the  supremacy  of  mercy  over  judgment,  alike 
in  the  attributes  of  God  and  the  sympathy  of  man  :  these  are 
the  points  of  prophetic  revelation  conveyed  in  the  Epic  of  Jonah. 


CHAPTER   X 

BIBLICAL    HISTORY    IN    ITS    RELATIONS    WITH    BIBLICAL    EPIC 

IN  the  wider  treatment  of  literature,  which  includes  questions 
of  authorship  and  discussion  of  subject  matter,  the  historical  books 

of  the  Bible  present  many  and  great  difficulties. 
Various  Types  of  ,.  ,  ,  ,        „ 

History  repre-       A  small  space  only  need  be  allotted  to  them  m  the 

sented  in  the  present  work,  the  field  of  which  is  limited  to  the 
characteristics  of  Scriptural  literature  as  it  stands, 
apart  from  any  further  enquiry  as  to  how  it  has  grown  into  what 
we  find  it.  If  we  except  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy,  which  is  best 
classified  otherwise,  narrative  extends  without  break  from  Genesis 
to  Esther  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  the  New  Testament  from 
St.  Matthew  to  Acts.  The  sole  question  for  the  present  chapter 
is,  How  many  of  the  various  forms  that  History  may  assume  are 
represented  in  this  succession  of  historical  works? 

What  the  sacred  books  give  us  is  the  History  of  the  People  of 
Israel  as  understood  by  themselves.  The  spirit  underlying  the 
whole  is  the  national  consciousness  of  Israel  as  the  peculiar  people 
of  Jehovah,  with  a  mission  to  represent  him  to  other  nations. 
Th  H'  t  f  From  this  idea  as  a  standpoint  the  whole  is  a  clear 
Israel  as  pre-  and  symmetrical  history  :  a  history  broken,  as  we 
sented  by  itself  have  seen  jn  ^  prececjing  chapter,  by  epic  stories 

used  as  means  of  illustration  or  emphasis.  Accordingly  it  is  from 
this  point  of  view  that  we  may  expect  to  see  the  logical  divisions 
of  Biblical  history. 

The  name  Genesis  is  suggestive  of  the  character  of  the  book  to 

Primitive  History  which  il  is  a  title :  il  is  Primitive  History.  It 
Book  of  Genesis  covers  the  ages  preceding  the  appearance  of  the 

250 


BIBLICAL  HISTORY  251 

Chosen  People  as  a  nation.  Eleven  of  its  chapters  deal  with  the 
first  beginnings  of  the  world ;  the  rest  is  occupied  with  the  suc- 
cession of  the  patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph.  At  the 
close  of  Genesis  the  seed  of  Abraham  is  still  treated  as  a  large 
family ;  when  the  history  is  resumed  in  the  following  book  the 
Egyptians  pronounce  the  Children  of  Israel  a  peo- 
ple more  and  mightier  than  themselves.  The 
character  of  this  Primitive  History  may  be  described  as  an  his- 
toric framework  enclosing  epic  incidents.  The  epic  element  has 
been  dealt  with  in  the  last  chapter :  Genesis  contains  single  epic 
stories,  such  as  the  flood,  cycles  of  stories  attaching  to  the  suc- 
cessive patriarchs,  and  a  single  complete  epic  history  in  the  Story 
of  Joseph  and  his  Brethren.  The  framework  of  history  is  made 
up  of  genealogies,  annals,  and  connective  matter  of  various  kinds. 
As  part  of  this  connective  matter  we  have  certain  incidents  which 
are  clearly  introduced  for  some  historic  purpose.  Thus  incidents 
connecting  Abimelech  and  Abraham,  and  again 

.....  ,    _  11-1  •  xxi.  23-34;  xxvi 

Abimelech  and  Isaac,  are  related  with  a  view  to 
explain  the  naming  of  Beersheba  and  other  ancient  wells.     Simi- 
larly the  story  of  Canaan's  father,  and  the  story  of 

.        ,        ix.  30-9  ;xix.  30-8 
Lot's  daughters  are  designed  to  account  for  the 

mutual  relations  of  great  world  families.  Such  Historic  Incidents 
are  easily  distinguishable  from  the  Epic  Incidents  of  which  the 
interest  lies  in  the  story  itself. 

Following  this  Primitive  History  of  Genesis,  three  books  de- 
scribe the  Migration  of  the  Nation  up  to  the  arrival  at  the  Land 
of  Promise.  These  three  books  may  be  classified 
together  as  Constitutional  History.  They  are  in 
the  nature  of  things  different  in  kind  from  what  Books  of  Exodus, 
that  term  generally  suggests.  Other  peoples  have 
gradually  elaborated  their  constitution  out  of  origi- 
nal popular  customs  and  modifications  by  specific  enactment. 
But  the  Chosen  Nation  of  Israel  is  governed  directly  by  God,  and 
its  only  Constitutional  History  is  the  successive  revelations  of  the 
Law.  Such  history  will  of  course  include  certain  incidents,  lead- 


252  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

ing  up  to  these  revelations  or  intimately  associated  with  them; 
as  where  the  visit  of  Jethro  leads  to  the  institution  of  subordinate 
judges,  or  factions  and  rebellions  issue  in  fresh  confirmation  of 
the  authority  wielded  by  Moses  or  the  priesthood  as  Jehovah's 
representatives.  Twice  this  section  of  the  history  assumes  creative 
form  :  at  the  beginning  the  Story  of  the  Ten  Plagues  presents 
Israel  as  a  horde  of  slaves ;  near  the  close  the  Story  of  Balaam 
exhibits  the  unwilling  praise  their  final  condition  extorts  from  an 
enemy.  The  natural  divisions  of  this  Constitutional  History  are 
two  :  Exodus,  Leviticus  and  part  of  Numbers  cover  the  period 
of  slavery  in  Egypt,  deliverance,  and  general  constitution  of  the 
nation  at  Sinai.  The  rest  of  the  Book  of  Numbers  traces  the 
march  from  Sinai  and  the  thirty-eight  years  wandering  in  the  wil- 
derness. 

We  pass  to  another  period,  which  is  represented  in  the  litera- 
ture by  yet  another  type  of  history.  The  Chosen  Nation  in  its 
incidental  History  various  efforts  towards  secular  government  is  pic- 
joshua,  judges  tured  in  the  Books  of  Joshua  and  Judges  and  the 
i  Samuel  First  Book  Oy  Samuel.1  The  Book  of  Joshua  nar- 

rates  the   conquest  of  Canaan  and  division  of  the   conquered 
country.     The  book  that  follows  indicates  an  age  of  sporadic 
attempts  at  government  by  '  Judges,'  who  from  time  to  time  rise 
up  and  succeed  in  commanding  a  more  or  less  wide  obedience ; 
in  the  intervals  between  such  Judges  there  is  nothing  but  local 
government,  or,  in  the  language  of  Scripture,  every  man  does  that 
which  is  right  in  his  own  eyes.     In  this  book,  however,  is  to  be 
found  the  first  idea  of  that  monarchical  rule  which  was  eventually 
to  assimilate  Israel  to  other  nations.     After  the  great  deliverance 
wrought  by  Gideon  he  is  invited  to  become  king, 
but  refuses :  "  I  will  not  rule   over  you,  neither 
shall  my  son  rule  over  you  :  the  LORD  shall  rule  over  you."    After 
Gideon's  death  another  and  less  worthy  son  allowed  himself  to  be 
crowned  king  by  the  men  of  Shechem ;  feud  and 
civil  war  followed  until  this  king  and  his  party  had 
l  The  exact  division  should  come  at  the  end  of  the  first  chapter  of  //  Samuel. 


BIBLICAL  HISTORY  253 

exterminated  one  another.  The  general  spirit  of  the  sacred  history 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  concentrated  scorn  with  which,  at  this 
juncture,  Jotham's  fable  treats  the  whole  conception  of  kingship. 

The  trees  went  forth  on  a  time  to  anoint  a  king  over  them;  and 
they  said  unto  the  olive  tree,  Reign  thou  over  us.  But  the  olive  tree 
said  unto  them,  Should  I  leave  my  fatness,  wherewith  by  me  they 
honour  God  and  man,  and  go  to  wave  to  and  fro  over  the  trees  ?  And 
the  trees  said  to  the  fig  tree,  Come  thou,  and  reign  over  us.  But  the 
fig  tree  said  unto  them,  Should  I  leave  my  sweetness,  and  my  good 
fruit,  and  go  to  wave  to  and  fro  over  the  trees?  And  the  trees  said 
unto  the  vine,  Come  thou,  and  reign  over  us.  And  the  vine  said  unto 
them,  Should  I  leave  my  wine,  which  cheereth  God  and  man,  and  go 
to  wave  to  and  fro  over  the  trees?  Then  said  all  the  trees  unto  the 
bramble,  Come  thou,  and  reign  over  us.  And  the  bramble  said  unto 
the  trees,  If  in  truth  ye  anoint  me  king  over  you,  then  come  and  put 
your  trust  in  my  shadow :  and  if  not,  let  fire  come  out  of  the  bramble, 
and  devour  the  cedars  of  Lebanon. 

The  demand  for  a  secular  king  does  not  reappear  until  the  move- 
ment which  ended  in  the  appointment  by  Divine  permission  of 
Saul.  But  before  this  took  place  another  power  had  emerged 
for  the  control  of  the  Israelite  people:  in  Samuel  the  'Judge' 
gradually  grew  into  the  '  Prophet,'  and  all  through  the  subsequent 
age  of  secular  kings  there  were  never  wanting  prophets  to  repre- 
sent the  old  theocracy  of  the  Chosen  People.  All  these  considera- 
tions confirm  the  description  of  this  epoch  as  a  period  of  transition 
and  tentative  rule. 

The  history  in  the  three  books  is  properly  described  as  Inci- 
dental History.  Nearly  the  whole  of  it  consists  in  Epic  Incidents  : 
whether  the  separate  Stories  of  the  Judges,  or  Cycles  of  Stories 
relating  to  Joshua,  to  Samson,  to  Samuel  and  Saul.  In  the  latter 
part  the  Feud  of  Saul  and  David  appears  as  one  of  the  most 
extended  of  Epics.  The  historic  framework  binding  these  epic 
portions  together  is  often  of  the  slightest  description,  no  more 
than  a  linking  of  one  incident  to  another.  The 

•  i        i  i  c         i  •  i-iii.  6 

most  considerable  parts  of  such  connective  matter 

are  the  summary  with  which  the  Book  of  Judges  opens,  and  the 


254  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

geographical  chapters  in  Joshua  which  make  a  sort 
of  Canaanite  Doomsday  Book. 

The  accession  of  King  David  marks  the  settlement  of  the 
monarchy ;  the  period  extending  from  this  point  to  the  Captivity 
Reeuiar  History  *s  narrated  in  the  second  book  of  Samuel  and  the 
ii  Samuel,  two  books  of  Kings,  First  we  have  the  reigns  of 

i and ii Kings  David  and  Solomon  over  a  united  people;  then 
comes  the  schism  of  the  nation  and  the  continuance  of  the  king- 
doms of  Judah  and  Israel  side  by  side ;  finally,  after  the  fall  of 
the  northern  kingdom,  the  history  of  Judah  by  itself  is  carried  on 
to  its  close.  The  narrative  in  these  three  books  may  be  described 
as  Regular  History.  It  is  a  systematic  account  of  successive 
reigns.  There  is  formal  arrangement  of  the  matter  :  in  the  earlier 
part  public  policy  is  to  a  large  extent  separated  from  court  life,1 
while  later  on  the  respective  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  are  kept  as 
nearly  parallel  as  the  nature  of  the  case  permits.  Lists  of  officials 
from  time  to  time  add  an  element  of  documentary  history ;  and 
there  is  constant  reference  to  authorities,  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  and  others.  Incidents  are  narrated 
historically,  that  is,  in  proportion  to  the  bearing  of  each  on  the 
general  course  of  events.  There  is,  however,  in  the  early  part  one 
considerable  Epic,  the  Feud  between  David's  Sons  and  the  Revolt 
of  Absalom  ;  and  to  this  may  be  added  the  Book  of  Esther,  which, 
however,  falls  outside  the  period,  and  is  a  story  of  the  Captivity. 
The  place  occupied  in  the  other  sections  of  history  by  Epic  Inci- 
dents is  in  this  last  section  mainly  represented  by  Epic  Prophecy : 
in  the  stories  of  individual  prophets  like  Nathan  and  Abijah,  and 
the  more  extended  narratives  connected  with  Elijah  and  Elisha,  the 
theocratic  side  of  Israel's  government  finds  representation.  The 
whole  period  may  be  described,  in  modern  phraseology,  as  a 
Government  of  Kings  and  an  Opposition  of  Prophets. 

There  remain  in  the  Old  Testament  the  books  of  Chronicles, 
Ezra,  and  Nehemiah.  These  make  a  series  that  covers  the  period 
treated  in  the  last  section,  and  carries  it  forward  as  far  as  the 
l  Chapters  ix-xx  of  //  Samuel  centre  around  court  life. 


BIBLICAL  HISTORY 


255 


return  of  the  Exiles  to  Jerusalem.  But  the  history  in  this  series 
is  entirely  changed  in  character :  it  is  distinguished  by  the  promi- 
nence of  documents,  genealogies,  statistics :  the 

Ecclesiastical 
narrative  appears  to  consist  in  excerpts,  from  the   History 

other  books  of  the  Bible  and  from  authorities  dis-  chronicles,  Ezra, 
tinct  from  these.  What  is  more  important,  the 
whole  is  dominated  by  a  definite  purpose  :  the  matter  is  abridged, 
amplified,  arranged,  with  reference  to  its  bearing  on  the  Jewish 
Church,  as  that  Church  was  restored  after  the  exile.  It  is  thus 
Ecclesiastical  History. 

The  distinctness  of  this  Ecclesiastical  History  from  the  Regular 
History  which  appeals  generally  to  our  sense  of  record  is  best 
illustrated  by  taking  a  particular  incident  for  comparison.  I  have 
before  had  occasion  to  refer  to  the  inauguration  of  Jerusalem  by 
King  David ;  it  will  be  instructive  to  note  how  this  is  treated  in 
Chronicles  and  in  Samuel. 


II  SAMUEL 


vi.  1-12  (a)  The  Assembly,  and  first 
attempt  to  bring  up  the  Ark,  ending 
in  the  death  of  Uzzah,  the  leaving  of 
the  Ark  in  the  house  of  Obed-Edom, 
and  the  blessing  on  the  house  of 
Obed-Edom. 


vi.  12  (3)-i9  («)  The  procession  of  the 
Ark  —  David's  part  in  it  —  Michal's 
displeasure — the  inauguration  carried 
to  the  point  of  a  dole  to  the  assembly. 


I  CHRONICLES 

xiii.  1-4  David's  proposal  to  the 
Assembly  in  the  matter  of  the  Ark : 
with  the  special  mention  of  priests 
and  Levites. 

5-14  The  same  matter  as  in  the  cor- 
responding section  of  Samuel :  con- 
siderable verbal  agreement,  with  some 
difference  of  names,  etc. 


xv.  1-24  David's  recognition  that 
none  but  the  Levites  should  bear  the 
Ark  —  long  lists  of  appointments  both 
for  the  bearing  and  the  musical  per- 
formance. 

xv.  25~xvi.  3  Substantial  agreement 
with  the  corresponding  section  of 
Samuel  —  but  fuller  musical  details. 


256  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

xvi.  4-42  Appointment,  apparently 
dating  from  this  festival,  of  a  regular 
ministry  before  the  Ark :  names  of 
officials  and  citation  of  (leading) 
songs  used. 

vi.  19  (£)-2O  (a)      Return  home  of      xvi.  43    Exactly  as  in  Samuel, 

the  people  and  of  David. 

vi.  20  (K)  -23       Sequel    of   Michal's 

displeasure. 

Thus,  the  substance  of  the  narrative  is  common  to  both  accounts, 
with  variation  in  unimportant  details,  and  an  amount  of  verbal 
agreement  sufficient  to  show  that  the  author  of  the  later  work'  had 
the  earlier  before  him,  or  else  that  both  used  a  common  authority. 
But  the  account  in  Chronicles  has  additions  which  bring  out  the 
ecclesiastical  purpose  of  its  history :  there  is  the  explanation  of 
Uzzah's  death  as  owing  to  the  neglect  of  the  Levitical  privileges, 
the  appointments  made  in  consequence  of  this,  and  the  full  detail 
of  musical  arrangements.  Again,  when  the  common  narrative  has 
been  brought  down  to  all  but  its  last  detail,  it  is,  in  Chronicles, 
interrupted  by  a  lengthy  account  of  a  general  ministry  dating  from 
this  day  of  inauguration ;  then  the  final  detail  of  the  common 
narrative  is  added.  On  the  other  hand,  the  only  section  of  the 
story  of  Samuel  which  has  no  counterpart  in  Chronicles  is  the 
domestic  incident  of  Michal's  remonstrance  with  the  king,  in 
which  Ecclesiastical  History  would  have  no  concern. 

The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Jewish  Church  in  the  Old 
Testament  has  in  the  New  Testament  a  counterpart  in  the  his- 
torical works   connected  with   the   foundation  of 
The  Four  Gospels    _,....  T         ,.  ,       ._ 

Christianity.     In  a  literary  classification  what  is  the 

position  to  be  assigned  to  the  Four  Gospels  ?  Though  they  are  a 
part  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  yet  they  are  not  histories.  How  far 
they  are  from  being  biographies  is  seen  by  the  difficulty  which 
modern  writers,  with  the  Gospels  before  them,  find  in  construct- 
ing a  satisfactory  biography  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  might  seem  more 
plausible  to  associate  them  with  the  department  of  Prophecy, 
since  we  have  seen  that  prophetic  literature  is  concerned  both 


BIBLICAL  HISTORY  257 

with  the  discourses  of  the  prophets  and  with  their  actions.  But 
the  difference  between  the  Gospels  and  Prophecy  is  greater  than 
the  resemblance.  The  personal  position  of  Jesus  in  the  history 
of  the  Gospels  is  not  that  of  a  prophet.  Though  the  function  of 
prophets  is  to  convey  a  Divine  message,  yet  prophetic  literature 
is  made  not  so  much  by  the  message  as  by  the  discourse  which 
enforces  it :  Jesus  Christ,  on  the  contrary,  speaks  throughout  the 
Gospels  with  the  authority  that  commands  and  enacts,  not  with 
the  appeal  inviting  to  a  doctrine  other  than  his  own.  The  conclu- 
sion we  are  led  to  is  that  the  Gospels  must  be  classified  by  them- 
selves, as  a  specific  literary  form.  The  description  of  this  form 
is  that  they  are  Authoritative  Statements  of  the  Acts  and  Words 
of  Christ.  As  in  the  machinery  of  public  life  we  \wvzprotocols 
reciting  with  authority  facts  or  documents  upon  which  political 
action  is  to  be  founded,  so  the  authors  of  the  Gospels  drew  up, 
and  the  early  Church  accepted,  what  were,  not  in  themselves  books 
of  law,  but  the  best  authorities  for  the  Acts  and  Words  of  their 
Founder,  to  which  the  Church  looked  for  its  supreme  law.  And 
this  technical  description  is  borne  out  by  the  language  of  the 
Preface  to  St.  Luke. 

Forasmuch  as  many  have  taken  in  hand  to  draw  up  a  narrative  con- 
cerning those  matters  which  have  been  fulfilled  among  us,  even  as  they 
delivered  them  unto  us,  which  from  the  beginning  were  eyewitnesses 
and  ministers  of  the  word,  it  seemed  good  to  me  also,  having  traced 
the  course  of  all  things  accurately  from  the  first,  to  write  unto  thee  in 
order,  most  excellent  Theophilus  ;  that  thou  mightest  know  the  cer- 
tainty concerning  the  things  wherein  thou  wast  instructed. 

No  doubt  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  differs  widely  in  spirit  from 
the  other  three.  Its  prologue  elaborates  a  theological  position, 
which  the  body  of  the  work  supports.  But  this  necessitates  only 
a  slight  modification  of  the  formula  I  have  used:  the  'Acts'  of 
Jesus  become,  in  St.  John's  writing,  'Signs';  his  'Words'  are 
brought  forward  as  '  Witness '  of  his  Divine  essence  and  mission. 
Thus  the  fourth  Gospel  may  be  placed  in  the  same  category  with 
the  other  three. 


258  BIBLICAL  HISTORY  AND  EPIC 

If  this  be  a  correct  description  from  the  literary  standpoint  of 
the  Four  Gospels,  then  it  will  be  seen  that  the  remaining  book  of 

Acts  must  be  referred  to  the  same  classification. 
Apostles  °  ^  *s  indeed  announced  as  a  continuation  of  St. 

Luke's  Gospel;  and  in  character  it  is  an  Authori- 
tative Statement  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Apostles,  in  the  early 
stages  of  founding  the  Church,  and  opening  it  to  the  whole  Gen- 
tile, world.  This  characterisation  of  the  book  will  appear  in  its 
title,  if  the  wording  of  the  title  be  translated  out  of  technical  into 
familiar  language.  The  '  Apostles  '  are  so  called  because  they 
have  received  a  certain  '  commission '  from  their  Master ;  the 
'Acts  of  the  Apostles'  are  the  'Proceedings  of  the  Commission- 
ers.' This  description  again  exactly  tallies  with  the  plan  and 
arrangement  of  the  book.  If  Acts  be  regarded  as  ordinary  his- 
tory, it  will  seem  strange  that  the  personages  and  places  which 
dominate  the  earlier  part  are  in  the  latter  part  almost  forgotten ; 
moreover,  the  history  seems  to  end  abruptly  just  where  it  might  be 
expected  to  become  specially  full.  But  the  terms  of  the  '  com- 
mission '  are  that  the  Apostles  are  to  make  disciples  of  all  nations, 
beginning  at  Jerusalem.  The  book  that  is  to  narrate  the  execution 
of  this  commission  deals  in  full  detail  with  the  start  made  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  rest  of  it  has  for  its  purpose  to  bring  out  the  suc- 
cessive enlargements  of  the  area  in  which  the  Church  is  at  work. 
The  chief  of  these  enlargements  is  the  admission  of  Gentiles : 
this  is  voluminously  treated  in  the  account  of  St.  Peter's  Vision,  of 
the  Council  settling  difficulties  between  the  Jews  and  the  Gentile 
converts,  above  all,  in  the  rise  of  the  Apostle  who  is  to  devote 
himself  specially  to  this  work.  It  is  natural  that  from  this  point 

the  history  should  mainly  concern  itself  with  St. 

Paul.  Another  miraculous  Vision  marks  a  further 
enlargement,  where  the  Gospel  is  carried  from  Asia  to  Europe. 
And  a  series  of  providential  circumstances,  not  less  wonderful 

than  a  vision,  are  narrated  at  length  from  their 

importance  in  bringing  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles 
to  Rome.  When  the  work  of  making  disciples  has  thus  been 


BIBLICAL  HISTORY  259 

carried  from  Jerusalem  to  the  city  which  is  the  metropolis  of  all 
nations,  the  terms  of  the  commission  have  been  fully  executed  : 
what  remains  may  be  left  to  the  history  which  is  not  authoritative. 

These  are  the  various  types  of  history  represented  in  Scripture. 
In  conclusion  I  would  say  that  those  who  desire  to  appreciate 
these  narrative  books  as  literature,  apart  from  the  historical  prob- 
lems they  raise,  will  do  well  to  see  that  they  read,  not  in  '  chapters,' 
but  in  portions  that  are  fixed  by  literary  considerations  ;  taking  in 
a  book  at  a  sitting,  or  if  not,  something  which  makes  a  natural 
division  of  a  book.  I  am  persuaded  that  Biblical  history  in  all 
its  parts  will  have  for  the  ordinary  reader  a  new  interest  when  the 
printer  has  been  allowed  to  do  for  the  text  of  Scripture  what  he  is 
expected  to  do  for  every  other  historical  work. 


BOOK  FOURTH 

THE   BIBLICAL   LITERATURE   OF   RHETORIC 


CHAPTER  PAGM 

XL    THE  EPISTLES:  OR  WRITTEN  RHETORIC  .        .        .  263 

XII.    SPOKEN  RHETORIC  :   AND  THE  f  BOOK  OF  DEUTERON- 
OMY'  .  .  268 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE   EPISTLES  :    OR   WRITTEN   RHETORIC 

THE  word  *  rhetoric '  has  several  meanings.     In  the  sense  that 
belongs  to  its  most  common  usage  it  has  little  connection  with 
the  purpose  of  the  present  work.     Questions  of  Rhetoric.  the 
style  seem  to  me  to  belong  to  the  study  of  Ian-  Literature  of 
guage  rather  than  to  the  study  of  literature  ;  unless  Address 
in  such  cases  as  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  where  we  see  a  peculiarity 
of  style  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  make  the  composition  a  literary 
class  by  itself,  the  morphological  distinctness  of  which  must  be 
kept  in  mind  by  one  who  would  appreciate  the  argument.     At 
present  I  am  using  the  word  '  rhetoric '  in  a  different  sense,  — 
as  the  literature  of  address.    The  Biblical  literature  of  address 
falls  into  two  main  divisions :   the  Epistle,  or  Written  Address, 
and  Oratory,  the  Spoken  Address. 

The  Epistolary  literature  of  the  Bible  constitutes  a  department 
of  the  highest  importance  as  regards  its  subject-matter.  But  its 

treatment  need  occupy  only  a  small  space  in  a  „ 

V3          J  Epistolary  Lit- 

work  of  which  the  purpose  is  to  note  distinctions  erature :  the 
of  literary  form.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  point  Written  Address 
out  that  the  generic  term  'epistle'  covers  three  classes  of  com- 
position worth  distinguishing,  without  reckoning  the  Epistle  of 
St.  James,  and  the  First  Epistle  of  St.  John,  which  will  be 
treated  as  a  part  of  Wisdom  literature. 

The  first  and  largest  class  is  made  up  of  epistles  in  the  strictest 
sense, —  the  Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse.  These  have  the  full 
form  of  epistolary  correspondence  :  commencing  with  a  salutation 

263 


264  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

from  the  Apostle,1  with  whom  other  names  are  joined  in  some 
cases,  to  a  distinct  church  or  fellow- worker ;  ending 
w^  furtner  salutations  and  sometimes  an  auto- 
graph message,  and  with  greetings,  general  or  by 
name.  Sometimes  messages  to  individuals,  or  about  the  treat- 
ment of  individuals,  appear  in  the  body  of  the  letter ;  information 
is  given  as  to  the  writer's  condition,  or  his  prospective  movements 
and  the  possibility  of  personal  visits  to  his  correspondents ;  refer- 
ence is  made  to  affairs  of  the  church  or  person  addressed,  and 
even  to  financial  questions  or  to  the  disposal  of  articles  of  luggage 
left  behind.  The  matter  of  the  epistle,  moreover,  is  called  forth  by 
particular  circumstances ;  though  in  treating  the  particular  the 
writer  can  rise  or  digress  to  the  deepest  principles  touched  in  the 

highest  forms  of  expression.     The  First  Epistle  to 
I  Corinthians  ,  °          .     ,  .        .          .  ,     .  .       ...  T 

the  Corinthians  is  an  ideal  example  of  this  type.    Its 

earlier  paragraphs  are  drawn  from  St.  Paul  by  tidings  he  has  heard 
of  the  Church  at  Corinth :  tidings  of  factions,  of  moral  laxity,  of 
proceedings  against  brethren  in  secular  courts.  Then  he  turns  to 
answer  questions  of  principle,  or  of  ecclesiastical  policy,  which 
have  been  conveyed  to  him  on  behalf  of  the  Corinthian  church ; 
he  thus  treats  of  celibacy,  of  the  idol  feasts  which  constituted  a 
burning  question  in  the  early  days  of  Christianity,  of  the  relation 
of  the  sexes  in  places  of  worship  ;  the  question  of  diverse  spiritual 
gifts  seems  also  to  be  among  those  put  to  him,  and  in  treating  it 
he  is  led  to  the  famous  outpouring  on  '  charity,'  or  '  love.'  He 
concludes  with  a  summary  of  the  '  gospel '  he  has  preached,  but  a 
summary  really  designed  for  a  single  purpose,  to  meet  doubts  that 
had  arisen  concerning  the  resurrection  doctrine  of  the  Apostles. 

The  other  pastoral  epistles  are,  in  their  general  character  as  a 

branch  of  literature,  covered  by  this  typical  example.    The  Second 

Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  a  later  stage  in  the 

other  Pastoral       correspondence  to  which  the  first  belongs.     That 

£plStldS 

to  the  Galatians  is  a  personal  remonstrance  from 
St.  Paul  to  churches  with  which  he  conceived  himself  to  have  a 
i  In  the  case  of  //,  ///  John  the  writer  appears  only  as  '  the  Elder.' 


THE  EPISTLES:    OR    WRITTEN  RHETORIC  265 

special  bond  of  intimacy,  and  which  had  been  disturbed  by  Juda- 
ising  tendencies  such  as  it  was  the  mission  of  this  Apostle  to  resist. 
The  epistle  to  the  Philippians  was  perhaps  originated  by  a  desire 
to  heal  local  differences,  if  we  may  judge  from  an  appeal 

IV.  2 

to  that  effect  addressed  to  individuals  by  name  ;  but  its 
matter  as  a  whole  is  general.  Those  to  the  Thessalonians  have 
an  individual  colour  given  to  them  by  the  prominence  of  discus- 
sions touching  the  expected  near  'coming  of  Christ.'  The  epistles 
to  Timothy  are  appeals  to  a  '  child  in  the  faith '  and  fellow-worker, 
touching  his  personal  character  as  a  teacher ;  but  St.  Paul  also 
pronounces  through  him  upon  questions  liftely  to  be  disputed  by 
those  amongst  whom  Timothy  would  labour.  The  epistle  to  Titus 
is  a  general  summary  of  instruction  to  one  left  in  charge  of  a  dis- 
trict where  much  organising  was  to  be  done.  The  epistle  to 
Philemon  was  a  personal  appeal  sent  by  St.  Paul  with  a  runaway 
slave,  now  Christianised,  and  desiring  to  return  to  his  master,  a 
convert  and  friend  of  the  Apostle.  Of  a  similar  personal  char- 
acter are  the  epistles  (numbered  second  and  third)  of  St.  John, 
addressed  to  an  unnamed  lady  and  to  Gaius. 

There  is  a  clear  distinction  between  such  epistles  of  Pastoral 
Intercourse  and  two  others,  which  may  be  designated  Epistolary 
Treatises.    The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  addressed, 
it  is  true,  to  a  particular  church :    but  it  is  the 
church  of  the  world's  metropolis,  and  one  which 
the  writer  has  never  visited.     The  formalities  of  salutation  quickly 

lead  the  writer  to  that  which  is  his  text :  the  new  con- 

,       ,.,  ,       r  •  i    i      i  •  i     •         t       •         Romans 

ception  of  a  'righteousness  by  faith,  which  is  salvation 

'  to  the  Jew  first  and  also  to  the  Greek.'  What  follows  is  a  for- 
mal and  ordered  exposition  of  this  conception,  the  writer  through- 
out keeping  before  him  the  two  parties  of  Jews  and  non-Jews, 
whose  attitudes  to  the  new  doctrine  would  be  so  different.  Com- 
mencing with  first  principles  he  gradually  reaches  a  climax  in  the 
idea  of  a  world  redemption ;  if  then  he  passes  from  argument  to 
exhortation,  yet  his  exhortations  are  only  another  form  of  his  argu- 
ment, and  represent  the  gospel  realised  in  practical  life.  The  con- 


266  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

elusion  has  the  greetings,  and  references  to  the  writer's  movements, 
which  belong  to  the  pastoral  epistles.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 

lacks  all  epistolary  form  of  opening,  even  the  name  of  its 
Hebrews 

author ;  at  the  close  there  is  only  a  reference  to  the  libera- 
tion of  Timothy,  and  a  salutation  from  '  them  of  Italy.'  The  whole  is 
an  elaborate  and  symmetrical  argument,  brilliant  in  style,  addressed 
by  a  Hebrew  to  Hebrews,  the  purport  of  which  is  that  the  Law 
must  give  place  to  the  Gospel  as  to  a  higher  and  fuller  dispensation. 
A  third  class  of  epistles  is  to  be  distinguished,  which  will  include 
those  to  the  Colossians  and  the  Ephesians,  the  two  epistles  of 

Epistolary  Mani-  Pe'er>  and  the  ePistle  of  Jude-  Of  these  onlv  the 
festos  epistle  to  the  Colossians  has  the  regular  epistolary 

salutations  and  greetings.  That  named  after  the  Ephesians  is  really 
a  circular  letter  to  churches,  of  which  the  church  at  Ephesus  was 
only  the  chief,  and  in  place  of  final  greetings  we  here  find  a  recom- 
mendation of  the  bearer  of  the  epistle.  The  others  have  in  our 
Bibles  the  title  of  'general,'  and  the  superscription  explains  the 
term  :  St.  Peter's  are  addressed  "  To  the  elect  who  are  sojourners 
of  the  Dispersion  in  Pontus,  &c.,"  and  "To  them  that  have  ob- 
tained a  like  precious  faith  with  us  "  ;  that  of  Jude,  "  To  them 
that  are  called,  beloved  in  God  the  Father,  and  kept  for  Jesus 
Christ."  I  think  this  group  would  be  correctly  designated  Epis- 
tolary Manifestos.  The  writer's  whole  conception  of  the  truth 
and  the  life  of  which  he  is  a  minister  is  concentrated  in  a  single 
deliverance,  not  for  purposes  of  general  argument  or  exposition 
(though  both  are  found) ,  but  drawn  out  by  some  special  situation 
of  the  church,  and  making  appeal  to  the  whole  nature  of  those  who 
read,  intellectual  and  spiritual,  whether  in  their  private  or  corporate 
Colossians  and  capacity.  In  the  case  of  the  Colossians  and  Ephe- 
Ephesians  sians  the  inspiring  situation  seems  to  be  the  rivalry 

of  some  other  well-ordered  systems  of  truth,  and  the  purpose  of 
the  epistles  is  to  put  forward  the  Christian  faith  and  life  as  satis- 
fying every  capacity  of  the  fullest  nature.     St.  Peter's  ad- 
dress to  the  Dispersion  is  clearly  called  out  by  an  era  of 
cruel  persecution,  which  has  naturally  driven  the  Church  to  test 


THE  EPISTLES:   OR  WRITTEN  RHETORIC  267 

the  foundations  of  the  faith  for  which  it  is  suffering.     The  Epistle 

of  *¥ude,  and  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter  which  has 
J   J  ..  Jude  and  II  Peter 

so  much  m  common  with  it,  are  manifestos  neces- 
sitated by  evil  attacking  the  Church  from  within :  the  perversion 
of  the  doctrine  of  '  liberty '  into  a  bold  antinomianism  that  set  at 
defiance  elementary  morality  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  order. 

Reviewing  all  three  classes  I  may  add  one  remark.  The  Epis- 
tles occupy  in  the  New  Testament  the  place  occupied  by  Prophecy 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The  prophets  ministered  Qld  Testament 
to  a  nation,  and  could  move  amongst  their  fellow-  counterparts  of 
countrymen  and  bring  to  bear  on  them  the  power  the  EPlstles 
of  vocal  address.  The  Apostles  addressed  those  who  were  scat- 
tered through  distant  cities,  and  could  communicate  with  the 
Church  as  a  whole  only  by  letter.  The  Pastoral  Epistles  corre- 
spond to  the  Occasional  Discourses  and  Prophetic  Incidents  which 
make  up  so  large  a  proportion  of  prophetic  literature.  In  our 
analysis  of  Prophecy  we  have  also  noticed  the  Prophetic  Mani- 
festo, embodying,  like  the  Epistolary  Manifestos,  the  preacher's 
general  conception  of  his  ministry.  For  the  Epistolary  Treatises 
there  is  no  counterpart  in  prophetic  literature ;  for  the  prophet 
speaks  with  authority,  not  by  argument,  as  a  representative  of  the 
God  his  hearers  acknowledge.  The  analogous  Old  Testament 
form  is  rather  to  be  sought  in  Wisdom  literature.  But  if  so,  the 
conception  of  Wisdom  is  found  to  have  altered ;  with  a  new  world 
in  which  the  Greek  takes  the  intellectual  lead  Wisdom  can  no 
longer  be  mere  reflection,  but  must  arm  itself  with  argument.  In 
the  passage  from  the  Essays  of  Old  Testament  Wisdom  to  the 
Epistles  named  after  Romans  and  Hebrews  we  have  passed  from 
Oriental  to  Western  philosophy. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SPOKEN  RHETORIC  :  AND  THE  '  BOOK  OF  DEUTERONOMY ' 

THE  department  of  Oratory,  or  Spoken  Rhetoric,  is  represented 
in  the  Bible  partly  by  the  elaborate  speeches  already  noted  in  the 
Drama   of   Job,  attractive   by  their   flowing  elo- 
quence  and  their  pointed  gnomic  sayings.    There 
are  again  numerous  speeches  scattered  through  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  which,  however,  cannot  well  be  appre- 
ciated from  the  literary  standpoint,  owing  to  the  condensed  form 
in  which  they  are  reported.     Perhaps  here  also  should  be  reck- 
oned, in  a  class  by  themselves,  the  formal  Prayers,  or  Addresses 
to  God,  of  which  Solomon's  Dedicatory  Prayer,  and  the  apocryphal 
Prayer  of  Manasses  are  the  chief  examples.     But  the  department 
includes  one  work  of  the  highest  literary  importance  in  the  fifth 
book  of  the  Pentateuch,  called  by  its  Greek  name  of  Deuteronomy. 
This  book  of  Deuteronomy  might  have  for  its  second  title  '  The 
Orations  and  Songs  of  Moses  before  his  ascent  of  Pisgah?     The 
vast  historic  importance  of  the  book,  from  its  in- 

Deuteronomyas  fluence  on  later  Biblical  writers,  and  the  difficult 
a  literary  work  _  _  7 

questions   surrounding  its  origin,  have  tended  to 

divert  attention  from  the  literary  interest  attaching  to  its  contents.1 
There  is,  perhaps,  no  other  work  in  which  so  much  is  gained  by 
attempting  to  read  the  whole  at  a  sitting.  For  this  exercise  some 
preparation  should  be  made,  in  the  way  of  separating  the  substance 
from  accessories.  To  begin  with,  there  are  some  long  parenthetic 

l  It  may  be  well  to  remind  the  reader  that  questions  of  literary  history  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  present  work.  The  analysis  of  Deuteronomy  is  analysis  of  the  book 
as  it  stands,  apart  from  any  question  how  it  has  reached  its  present  form. 

268 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  269 

explanations,  which  are  obviously  not  to  be  understood  as  part  of 
the  speeches  in  which  they  occur :  in  modern  phraseology  they 
are  foot-notes,  and  they  should  be  marked  off.1  Other  verses 
should  be  separated  as  prefaces,  titles,  colophons,  and  the  like.2 
But  in  addition  to  these  brief  passages  there  is  a  lengthy  section 
of  fifteen  chapters  which  may  be  understood  as  the  '  Book 
of  the  Covenant '  that  is  being  mentioned  continually  in 
the  speeches ;  however  important  in  itself,  this  section  should,  in 
such  an  exercise  as  I  am  describing,  be  taken  as  read,  and  not 
allowed  to  disturb  the  succession  of  orations.  When,  with  these 
preparations,  the  whole  book  is  reviewed  at  a  sitting,  an  intense 
interest  is  thrown  upon  the  orations  from  the  pathetic  situation  in 
which  they  are  delivered  :  the  leader  of  the  Hebrews  in  their  wan- 
derings alone  realising  that  promised  land  from  which  he  alone 
is  excluded.  This  thought  from  time  to  time  breaks  out  in  the 
cry  —  "The  Lord  was  angry  with  me  for  your  sakes  "  ;  and  when 
not  spoken  in  words  it  is  none  the  less  present  as  inspiration  of 
the  passionate  appeals  and  denunciations  with  which  Moses  seeks 
to  make  the  Covenant,  of  which  he  has  been  the  interpreter,  a 
power  with  the  people  when  he  is  no  longer  present  to  uphold  it. 
There  is  also  a  crescendo  of  interest  throughout  the  book :  narra- 
tive review,  appeal,  ceremonial  and  terrible  denunciation,  farewell 
and  personal  tenderness,  a  climax  of  song,  simple  story  of  the 
solemn  and  pathetic  end.  Read  in  any  way,  Deuteronomy  reveals 
its  rhetoric  richness ;  read  at  a  single  sitting,  it  is  seen  to  be  ora- 
tory arranged  to  produce  all  the  effect  of  Drama. 

FIRST  ORATION  i.  e-iv.  40 

MOSES'  ANNOUNCEMENT  OF  HIS  DEPOSITION 

The  people  are  indicated  as  gathered  together  in  the  deep  hol- 
low that  makes  the  bed  of  the  Jordan,  on  its  eastern  side.  Moses, 
standing  before  them,  commences  in  the  calm  tone  of  historic  sur- 

1  They  are:  ii.  10-12;  ii.  20-3;  iii.  9  and  n  and  again  14;  x.  6-9. 

2  See  throughout  analysis  in  the  Literary  Index. 


270  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  RHETORIC 

vey.  He  goes  to  the  central  incident  of  the  people's  history  — 
the  giving  of  the  law  on  Horeb  —  and  tells  how  the  first  move- 
ment forward  revealed  the  growing  numbers  of  the  people,  so 
that  he  could  no  longer  support  the  cumbrance  and  burden  and 
strife  of  so  vast  a  nation. 

The  LORD,  the  God  of  your  fathers,  make  you  a  thousand  times  so 
many  more  as  ye  are,  and  bless  you,  as  he  hath  promised  you ! 

It  thus  became  necessary  to  appoint  captains  of  hundreds  and 
fifties  and  tens ;  and  in  such  organised  form  the  people  passed 
through  the  great  and  terrible  wilderness,  and  reached  Kadesh- 
Barnea.  There  the  order  came  to  advance  on  the  foe.  But 
though  the  spies  sent  on  to  explore  brought  back  word  of  a  good 
land,  yet  they  made  the  heart  to  melt  with  their  tale  of  cities  great 
and  fenced  up  to  heaven,  and  children  of  the  Anakim  :  until  the 
people  forgot  the  Lord  their  leader  in  the  wilderness.  Moses 
reviews  how  the  Lord's  wrath  brake  forth  at  the  murmuring,  and 
he  sware  that  none  save  the  faithful  spies  should  enter  the  land : 
the  children  and  little  ones  should  alone  inherit.  Here  for  the 
first  time  comes  the  sad  plaint  that  the  Lord  was  angry  with  Moses 
for  the  people's  sake,  and  he,  too,  must  not  pass  over  Jordan.  The 
history  continues  to  tell  of  the  presumptuous  courage  that  went  up 
to  the  battle  without  the  Lord,  and  was  visited  with  defeat  and 
rout.  Then  there  is  the  turning  back  to  the  wilderness,  and  the 
eight  and  thirty  years  wandering  while  all  the  men  of  war  of  that 
generation  were  being  gradually  consumed  :  a  wandering,  never- 
theless, that  lacked  not  the  Lord's  watchfulness. 

The  LORD  thy  God  hath  blessed  thee  in  all  the  work  of  thy  hand : 
he  hath  known  thy  walking  through  this  great  wilderness :  these 
forty  years  the  LORD  thy  God  hath  been  with  thee,  thou  hast  lacked 
nothing. 

With  the  crossing  of  the  brook  Zered  the  new  era  begins  :  the 
dread  and  the  fear  of  Israel  falls  upon  the  peoples.  In  vain  Sihon 
king  of  Heshbon  and  Og  king  of  Bashan  resist :  their  cities  are 
taken,  their  people  smitten  and  extirpated,  their  land  divided 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  271 

among  the  tribes  that  had  much  cattle.  It  now  appears  how  these 
signs  of  Jehovah's  favour  to  his  people  stirred  the  personal  hopes 
of  Moses. 

And  I  besought  the  LORD  at  that  time,  saying,  O  Lord  GOD,  thou 
hast  begun  to  show  thy  servant  thy  greatness,  and  thy  strong  hand : 
for  what  god  is  there  in  heaven  or  in  earth  that  can  do  according  to 
thy  works,  and  according  to  thy  mighty  acts?  Let  me  go  over,  I 
pray  thee,  and  see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond  Jordan,  that  goodly 
mountain,  and  Lebanon.  But  the  LORD  was  wroth  with  me  for  your 
sakes,  and  hearkened  not  unto  me :  and  the  LORD  said  unto  me, 
Let  it  suffice  thee;  speak  no  more  unto  me  of  this  matter.  Get  thee 
up  into  the  top  of  Pisgah,  and  lift  up  thine  eyes  westward,  and  north- 
ward, and  southward,  and  eastward,  and  behold  with  thine  eyes :  for 
thou  shalt  not  go  over  this  Jordan.  But  charge  Joshua,  and  encour- 
age him,  and  strengthen  him :  for  he  shall  go  over  before  this  people. 

So,  then,  the  office  of  Moses  is  to  be  ended :  the  words  he  has 
commanded  are  not  to  be  added  to,  nor  diminished  from :  it  re- 
mains that  the  people  shall  keep  them,  and  this  shall  be  their 
wisdom  and  their  understanding  in  the  sight  of  the  peoples,  for 
no  people  can  have  a  god  so  nigh  or  statutes  so  wise  as  theirs. 
But  they  must  remember  the  occasion  of  the  lavvgiving,  and  how 
the  mountain  burned  with  fire  unto  the  heart  of  heaven,  and  they 
heard  the  voice  but  saw  no  form ;  they  must  take  heed  lest  they 
make  the  form  of  anything  in  heaven  or  earth,  to  worship  it ;  and 
lest  when  they  behold  the  sun  and  moon  and  all  the  host  of 
heaven  their  hearts  be  lifted  up  and  they  worship  these  —  these 
which  the  Lord  has  divided  unto  all  the  peoples  under  the  whole 
heaven,  whereas  Israel  he  has  chosen  for  his  own  inheritance. 
And  he  will  be  jealous  over  the  people  with  whom  he  has  made 
his  covenant. 

For  ask  now  of  the  days  that  are  past,  which  were  before  thee, 
since  the  day  that  God  created  man  upon  the  earth,  and  from  the 
one  end  of  heaven  unto  the  other,  whether  there  hath  been  any  such, 
thing  as  this  great  thing  is,  or  hath  been  heard  like  it?  Did  ever 
people  hear  the  voice  of  God  speaking  out  of  the  midst  of  the  fire, 
as  thou  hast  heard,  and  live  ?  Or  hath  God  assayed  to  go  and  take 


272  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  RHETORIC 

him  a  nation  from  the  midst  of  another  nation,  by  temptations,  by 
signs,  and  by  wonders,  and  by  war,  and  by  a  mighty  hand,  and  by  a 
stretched  out  arm,  and  by  great  terrors,  according  to  all  that  the 
LORD  your  God  did  for  you  in  Egypt  before  your  eyes?  Unto  thee 
it  was  shewed  that  thou  mightest  know  that  the  LORD  he  is  God ; 
there  is  none  else  beside  him.  Out  of  heaven  he  made  thee  to  hear 
his  voice,  that  he  might  instruct  thee :  and  upon  earth  he  made  thee 
to  see  his  great  fire;  and  thou  heardest  his  words  out  of  the  midst 
of  the  fire.  And  because  he  loved  thy  fathers,  therefore  he  chose 
their  seed  after  them,  and  brought  thee  out  with  his  presence,  with 
his  great  power,  out  of  Egypt ;  to  drive  out  nations  from  before  thee 
greater  and  mightier  than  thou,  to  bring  thee  in,  to  give  thee  their 
land  for  an  inheritance,  as  at  this  day.  Know  therefore  this  day, 
'  and  lay  it  to  thine  heart,  that  the  LORD  he  is  God  in  heaven  above 
and  upon  the  earth  beneath :  there  is  none  else.  And  thou  shalt 
keep  his  statutes,  and  his  commandments  which  I  command  thee 
this  day,  that  it  may  go  well  with  thee,  and  with  thy  children  after 
thee,  and  that  thou  mayest  prolong  thy  days  upon  the  land,  which 
the  LORD  thy  God  giveth  thee,  for  ever. 


v-  »•**  SECOND  ORATION 

THE  DELIVERY  OF  THE  COVENANT  TO  THE  LEVTTES  AND  ELDERS 

The  second  oration  of  Moses  is  connected  with  a  public  cere- 
mony :  the  handing  over  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  into  the 
custody  of  the  Levites  and  Elders.  The  scene  of  the  preceding 
oration  is  repeated,  and  Moses  appears,  with  officials  grouped 
round  him  representing  the  Levites  and  Elders,  holding  in  his 
hands  the  Covenant  of  the  Lord,  now  for  the  first  time  reduced 
to  writing.  As  in  the  former  speech,  he  goes  for  a  starting-point 
to  the  scene  at  Horeb;  he  recites  the  commandments  one  by 
one  as  delivered  by  the  great  Voice  amid  fire  and  darkness ;  and 
he  reminds  the  people  how  they  came  to  him  with  words  of  panic  : 

We  have  seen  this  day  that  God  doth  speak  with  man,  and  he  liveth. 
Now  therefore  why  should  we  die? 

Their  petition  was  that  Moses  might  stand  in  their  stead  before  the 
Lord,  and  all  that  the  Lord  commands  by  him  they  will  do.    Now 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  273 

therefore  all  the  separate  commandments  and  statutes  and  judg- 
ments of  which  Moses  has  thus  been  the  interpreter  have  been 
gathered  into  one  Covenant,  the  book  Moses  holds  in  his  hands. 
His  task  is  to  commend  it  to  their  obedience  before  they  hear  it 
read.  He  commences  with  the  great  Name. 

Hear,  O  Israel :  the  LORD  our  God  is  one  LORD  :  and  thou  shalt 
love  the  LORD  thy  God  with  all  thine  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul, 
and  with  all  thy  might.  And  these  words,  which  I  command  thee 
this  day,  shall  be  upon  thine  heart :  and  thou  shalt  teach  them  dili- 
gently unto  thy  children,  and  shalt  talk  of  them  when  thou  sittest  in 
thine  house,  and  when  thou  walkest  by  the  way,  and  when  thou  liest 
down,  and  when  thou  risest  up.  And  thou  shalt  bind  them  for  a 
sign  upon  thine  hand,  and  they  shall  be  for  frontlets  between  thine 
eyes.  And  thou  shalt  write  them  upon  the  doorposts  of  thy  house, 
and  upon  thy  gates.  And  it  shall  be,  that  when  the  LORD  thy  God 
shall  bring  thee  into  the  land  which  he  sware  unto  thy  fathers,  to 
Abraham,  to  Isaac,  and  to  Jacob,  to  give  thee;  great  and  goodly 
cities,  which  thou  buildedst  not,  and  houses  full  of  all  good  things, 
which  thou  filledst  not,  and  cisterns  hewn  out,  which  thou  hewedst 
not,  vineyards  and  olive  trees,  which  thou  plantedst  not,  and  thou 
shalt  eat  and  be  full;  then  beware  lest  thou  forget  the  LORD. 

On  the  contrary,  when  their  children  ask  them  in  the  days  to 
come,  what  mean  these  statutes  and  judgments,  they  shall  tell  how 
they  were  Pharaoh's  bondmen  in  Egypt,  and  how  Jehovah  brought 
them  out  with  wonders  great  and  sore,  and  gave  them  these  com- 
mandments to  keep  :  and  it  shall  be  their  righteousness  if  they 
observe  the  commandments  of  their  God. 

This  Covenant  shall  be  their  distinction  among  the  nations. 
The  Lord  will  cast  out  the  nations  before  them  :  —  not  suddenly, 
lest  the  beasts  of  the  field  increase  upon  them ;  but  by  little  and 
by  little  will  he  cast  them  out.  They  shall  make  no  covenant  with 
them,  nor  give  them  sons  and  daughters  in  marriage. 

For  thou  art  an  holy  people  unto  the  LORD  thy  God :  the  LORD 
thy  God  hath  chosen  thee  to  be  a  peculiar  people  unto  himself,  above 
all  peoples  that  are  upon  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  LORD  did  not  set 
his  love  upon  you,  nor  choose  you,  because  ye  were  more  in  number 


274  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

than  any  people;  for  ye  were  the  fewest  of  all  peoples :  but  because 
the  LORD  loveth  you,  and  because  he  would  keep  the  oath  which  he 
sware  unto  your  fathers,  hath  the  LORD  brought  you  out  with  a 
mighty  hand,  and  redeemed  you  out  of  the  house  of  bondage. 

The  orator  turns  to  the  past  to  find  ground  for  emphasising 
the  keeping  of  the  Covenant. 

Thou  shall  remember  all  the  way  which  the  LORD  thy  God  hath  led 
thee  these  forty  years  in  the  wilderness,  that  he  might  humble  thee, 
to  prove  thee,  to  know  what  was  in  thine  heart,  whether  thou  would- 
est  keep  his  commandments,  or  no.  And  he  humbled  thee,  and  suf- 
fered thee  to  hunger,  and  fed  thee  with  manna,  which  thou  knewest 
not,  neither  did  thy  fathers  know;  that  he  might  make  thee  know 
that  man  doth  not  live  by  bread  only,  but  by  everything  that  pro- 
ceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  LORD  doth  man  live.  Thy  raiment 
waxed  not  old  upon  thee,  neither  did  thy  foot  swell,  these  forty  years. 
And  thou  shall  consider  in  thine  heart,  that,  as  a  man  chasteneth  his 
son,  so  Ihe  LORD  thy  God  chastenelh  thee.  And  thou  shall  keep 
the  commandmenls  of  Ihe  LORD  Ihy  God,  lo  walk  in  his  ways,  and 
to  fear  him.  For  the  LORD  thy  God  bringeth  Ihee  inlo  a  good  land, 
a  land  of  brooks  of  waler,  of  founlains  and  deplhs,  springing  forth 
in  valleys  and  hills;  a  land  of  wheat  and  barley,  and  vines  and  fig 
trees  and  pomegranates;  a  land  of  oil  olives  and  honey;  a  land 
wherein  thou  shall  eat  bread  withoul  scarceness,  Ihou  shall  not  lack 
anything  in  it;  a  land  whose  slones  are  iron  and  oul  of  whose  hills 
thou  mayesl  dig  brass.  And  thou  shall  eal  and  be  full,  and  Ihou 
shall  bless  Ihe  LORD  Ihy  God  for  Ihe  good  land  which  he  halh  given 
thee.  Beware  lest  thou  forgel  Ihe  LORD  Ihy  God,  in  nol  keeping  his 
commandmenls,  and  his  judgements,  and  his  statutes,  which  I  com- 
mand thee  this  day :  lest  when  thou  hasl  ealen  and  art  full,  and  hasl 
buill  goodly  houses,  and  dwell  Iherein ;  and  when  thy  herds  and  thy 
flocks  multiply,  and  thy  silver  and  thy  gold  is  multiplied,  and  all  lhal 
thou  hasl  is  mulliplied ;  Ihen  Ihine  heart  be  lifted  up,  and  Ihou  for- 
gel Ihe  LORD  thy  God,  which  brought  thee  forth  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  out  of  the  house  of  bondage;  who  led  thee  through  the  great 
and  terrible  wilderness,  wherein  were  fiery  serpenls  and  scorpions, 
and  Ihirsly  ground  where  was  no  waler;  who  broughl  Ihee  forth 
waler  out  of  the  rock  of  flint;  who  fed  thee  in  the  wilderness  with 
manna,  which  thy  fathers  knew  nol ;  lhat  he  mighl  humble  Ihee 
and  that  he  might  prove  Ihee,  lo  do  thee  good  al  thy  latter  end : 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  275 

and  thou  say  in  thine  heart,  My  power  and  the  might  of  mine  hand 
hath  gotten  me  this  wealth.  But  thou  shall  remember  the  LORD  thy 
God,  for  it  is  he  that  giveth  thee  power  to  get  wealth;  that  he  may 
establish  his  covenant  which  he  sware  unto  thy  fathers,  as  at  this  day. 

Moses  turns  to  the  future.  They  are  this  day  to  pass  over  Jor- 
dan, and  soon  they  will  see  the  nations,  even  the  tall  sons  of  Anak, 
going  down  before  them.  But  let  them  beware  lest  they  say  in 
their  heart :  "  For  my  righteousness  hath  the  Lord  brought  me 
into  the  land."  Not  for  their  righteousness,  but  for  the  wicked- 
ness of  them  that  dwell  in  the  land.  Not  for  their  righteousness, 
for  they  have  been  ever  a  stiff-necked  generation  :  and  the  orator 
gathers  into  one  single  view  all  the  outbreaks  of  rebellion  and  sin 
which  had  marred  the  history  of  the  people  in  the  wilderness. 
Yet  why  this  rebellious  spirit  ? 

What  doth  the  LORD  thy  God  require  of  thee,  but  to  fear  the  LORD 
thy  God,  to  walk  in  all  his  ways,  and  to  love  him,  and  to  serve  the 
LORD  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart  and  with  all  thy  soul,  to  keep  the 
commandments  of  the  LORD,  and  his  statutes,  which  I  command 
thee  this  day  for  thy  good?  Behold,  unto  the  LORD  thy  God  be- 
longeth  the  heaven,  and  the  heaven  of  heavens,  the  earth,  with  all 
that  therein  is.  Only  the  LORD  had  a  delight  in  thy  fathers  to  love 
them,  and  he  chose  their  seed  after  them,  even  you  above  all  peo- 
ples, as  at  this  day. 

Moses  speaks,  not  to  children  which  have  not  known,  but  to  those 
who  have  seen  all  the  works  of  the  Lord  done  upon  Egypt,  and 
how  the  LORD  their  God  is  God  of  gods,  and  Lord  of  lords,  the 
great  God,  the  mighty,  the  terrible.  Let  them  therefore  circum- 
cise their  hearts,  and  so  go  over  and  possess  the  good  land. 

For  the  land,  whither  thou  goest  in  to  possess  it,  is  not  as  the  land  of 
•  Egypt,  from  whence  ye  came  out,  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed,  and 
wateredst  it  with  thy  foot,  as  a  garden  of  herbs;  but  the  land, 
whither  ye  go  over  to  possess  it,  is  a  land  of  hills  and  valleys,  and 
drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of  heaven :  a  land  which  the  LORD  thy 
God  careth  for;  the  eyes  of  the  LORD  thy  God  are  always  upon  it, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  year  even  unto  the  end  of  the  year. 


276  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

If,  then,  the  people  keep  faithfully  the  Covenant  of  the  Lord,  he 
will  give  them  the  rain  in  its  season,  the  former  rain  and  the  latter 
rain,  and  the  land  shall  yield  her  increase  ;  but  if  they  turn  aside 
and  serve  other  gods,  the  heavens  shall  be  shut  up,  and  the  land 
shall  not  yield  her  fruit,  and  they  shall  perish  quickly  from  off  the 
good  land  their  God  has  given  them. 

Therefore  shall  ye  lay  up  these  my  words  in  your  heart  and  in  your 
soul ;  and  ye  shall  bind  them  for  a  sign  upon  your  hand,  and  they 
shall  be  for  frontlets  between  your  eyes.  And  ye  shall  teach  them 
your  children,  talking  of  them,  when  thou  sittest  in  thine  house,  and 
when  thou  walkest  by  the  way,  and  when  thou  liest  down,  and  when 
thou  risest  up.  And  thou  shalt  write  them  upon  the  doorposts  of 
thine  house,  and  upon  thy  gates;  that  your  days  may  be  multiplied, 
and  the  days  of  your  children,  upon  the  land  which  the  LORD  sware 
unto  your  fathers  to  give  them,  as  the  days  of  the  heavens  above 
the  earth. 

Fresh  promises  follow  of  rewards  for  faithfulness  :  nations  greater 
and  mightier  than  themselves  driven  out  before  them,  a  border 
from  the  wilderness  to  Lebanon,  from  the  hinder  sea  to  the  river 
Euphrates,  —  every  place  where  the  sole  of  their  foot  shall  tread 
shall  be  theirs.  In  conclusion  Moses  refers  to  the  blessing  and 
the  curse,  which  are  to  be  the  sanctions  of  the  Covenant ;  and 
then  must  have  come  the  time  when  he  would  hand  over  the  Book 
of  the  Covenant  in  the  eyes  of  the  whole  nation,  to  the  Levites 
and  Elders  around  him,  to  be  read  by  them  before  the  people  on 
that  day  and  many  a  day  afterwards. 

zrviii  THIRD  ORATION 

AT  THE  REHEARSAL  OF  THE  BLESSING  AND  THE  CURSE 

When  the  fifteen  chapters  containing  the  Book  of  the  Covenant 
are  concluded,  a  succession  of  paragraphs  follow  which  need  close 

attention.     First  we  have  an  ordinance  formally  appoint- 
zzvii.  1-8 

ing  the  Ceremonial  of  the  Blessing  and  Curse ;  and  this 

is  a  provision  for  the  future,  since  the  places  designated  —  Mounts 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  277 

Ebal  and  Gerizim — are  on  the  other  side  of  Jordan.     Next  fol- 
low two  verses  in  which  it  is  said  that  Moses  and  the 
priests  the  Levites  spake  unto  all  Israel,  to  the  effect  that  9 
they  had  that  day  become  the  Lord's  people,  and  must  keep 
his  commandments.     Then  verses  describe  how  Moses 
"charged  the  people  the  same  day,"  the  point  of  the 
charge  being  the  division  of  the  tribes  —  six  for  the  mountain  of 
the  Curse,  and  six  for  the  mountain  of  the  Blessing ;  the  descrip- 
tion brings  out  the  antiphonal  character  of  the  ceremony,  the 
Levites  speaking,  and  the  people  responding  with  an 
Amen.     Then  follow  the  Curses  in  this  full  ritual  form. 
But,  instead  of  a  similar  series  of  Blessings,  we  find  the  matter  of 
the  Blessings  put  in  oratorical  language,  which  oratorical 
language  continues  into  the  matter  of  the  Curses.     The 
only  way  of  satisfactorily  interpreting  such  a  succession  of  para- 
graphs is  to  suppose  a  Rehearsal  of  the  Ceremony,  the  tribes 
being  stationed  upon  opposite  slopes  in  some  spot  resembling  the 
mountains  of  Ebal  and  Gerizim ;  and,  when  the  ceremony  has 
proceeded  as  far  as  the  conclusion  of  the  Curses,  Moses  —  since  it 
is  only  a  rehearsal  —  interrupts  it,  and  takes  the  whole  into  his 
own  hands.     This  gives  us  the  third  oration. 

Moses  describes  how,  if  the  people  observe  the  commandments 
of  their  God,  they  shall  be  blessed  in  city  and  in  field,  in  the  fruit 
of  their  body  and  the  fruit  of  their  ground  and  their  cattle,  in 
basket,  in  kneading-trough,  when  they  come  in  and  when  they  go 
out,  and  in  all  that  they  do. 

The  LORD  shall  open  unto  thee  his  good  treasury  the  heaven  to 
give  the  rain  of  thy  land  in  its  season,  and  to  bless  all  the  work  of 
thine  hand :  and  thou  shalt  lend  unto  many  nations,  and  thou  shall 
not  borrow.  And  the  LORD  shall  make  thee  the  head,  and  not  the 
tail;  and  thou  shalt  be  above  only,  and  thou  shalt  not  be  beneath; 
if  thou  shalt  hearken  unto  the  commandments  of  the  LORD  thy  God. 

But  if  the  people  shall  not  hearken  unto  the  voice  of  the  Lord 
their  God,  then  curses  shall  come  upon  them  and  overtake  them  : 
curses  in  city  and  field,  in  basket  and  kneading-trough,  in  the  fruit 


278  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

of  body  and  of  cattle  and  of  field,  curses  when  they  come  in  and 
when  they  go  out.  Discomfiture  and  rebuke,  consumption,  fever, 
inflammation,  fiery  heat,  the  sword,  blasting  mildew,  shall  pursue 
them  until  they  perish. 

And  thy  heaven  that  is  over  thy  head  shall  be  brass,  and  the  earth 
that  is  under  thee  shall  be  iron.  The  LORD  shall  make  the  rain  of 
thy  land  powder  and  dust :  from  heaven  shall  it  come  down  upon 
thee,  until  thou  be  destroyed.  The  LORD  shall  cause  thee  to  be 
smitten  before  thine  enemies :  thou  shalt  go  out  one  way  against 
them,  and  shalt  flee  seven  ways  before  them:  and  thou  shalt  be 
tossed  to  and  fro  among  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth. 

There  shall  be  madness,  and  blindness,  and  astonishment  of  heart  \ 
groping  at  noontide  as  the  blind  gropeth  in  darkness ;  sons  and 
daughters  shall  be  borne  into  captivity,  and  the  eyes  of  parents 
shall  look  and  fail  with  longing  for  them  all  the  day ;  but  there 
shall  be  nought  in  the  power  of  their  hand ;  for  they  shall  be  only 
oppressed,  and  crushed  alway,  and  they  shall  be  mad  for  the  sight 
of  their  eyes  which  they  shall  see. 

Thou  shalt  carry  much  seed  out  into  the  field,  and  shalt  gather  little 
in;  for  the  locust  shall  consume  it.  Thou  shalt  plant  vineyards  and 
dress  them,  but  thou  shalt  neither  drink  of  the  wine  nor  gather  the 
grapes;  for  the  worm  shall  eat  them.  Thou  shalt  have  olive  trees 
throughout  all  thy  borders,  but  thou  shalt  not  anoint  thyself  with 
the  oil;  for  thine  olive  shall  cast  its  fruit.  Thou  shalt  beget  sons 
and  daughters,  but  they  shall  not  be  thine ;  for  they  shall  go  into 
captivity. 

The  stranger  in  their  midst  shall  mount  higher  and  higher  as  they 
go  down  lower  and  lower :  and  all  because  they  have  not  heark- 
ened unto  the  voice  of  their  God. 

Because  thou  servedst  not  the  LORD  thy  God  with  joyfulness,  and 
with  gladness  of  heart,  by  reason  of  the  abundance  of  all  things: 
therefore  shalt  thou  serve  thine  enemies  which  the  LORD  shall  send 
against  thee,  in  hunger,  and  in  thirst,  and  in  nakedness,  and  in  want 
of  all  things :  and  he  shall  put  a  yoke  of  iron  upon  thy  neck,  until 
he  have  destroyed  thee.  The  LORD  shall  bring  a  nation  against 
thee  from  far,  from  the  end  of  the  earth,  as  the  eagle  flieth;  a  nation 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  279 

whose  tongue  thou  shalt  not  understand;  a  nation  of  fierce  coun- 
tenance, which  shall  not  regard  the  person  of  the  old,  nor  shew 
favour  to  the  young :  and  he  shall  eat  the  fruit  of  thy  cattle,  and  the 
fruit  of  thy  ground,  until  thou  be  destroyed :  which  also  shall  not 
leave  thee  corn,  wine,  or  oil,  the  increase  of  thy  kine,  or  the  young 
of  thy  flock,  until  he  have  caused  thee  to  perish.  And  he  shall  be- 
siege thee  in  all  thy  gates,  until  thy  high  and  fenced  walls  come 
down,  wherein  thou  trustedst,  throughout  all  thy  land :  and  he  shall 
besiege  thee  in  all  thy  gates  throughout  all  thy  land,  which  the  LORD 
thy  God  hath  given  thee.  And  thou  shalt  eat  the  fruit  of  thine  own 
body,  the  flesh  of  thy  sons  and  of  thy  daughters  which  the  LORD  thy 
God  hath  given  thee;  in  the  siege  and  in  the  straitness,  wherewith 
thine  enemies  shall  straiten  thee.  The  man  that  is  tender  among 
you,  and  very  delicate,  his  eye  shall  be  evil  toward  his  brother,  and 
toward  the  wife  of  his  bosom,  and  toward  the  remnant  of  his  chil- 
dren which  he  hath  remaining :  so  that  he  will  not  give  to  any  of 
them  of  the  flesh  of  his  children  whom  he  shall  eat,  because  he  hath 
nothing  left  him;  in  the  siege  and  in  the  straitness,  wherewith  thine 
enemy  shall  straiten  thee  in  all  thy  gates.  The  tender  and  delicate 
woman  among  you,  which  would  not  adventure  to  set  the  sole  of  her 
foot  upon  the  ground  for  delicateness  and  tenderness,  her  eye  shall 
be  evil  toward  the  husband  of  her  bosom,  and  toward  her  son,  and 
toward  her  daughter;  and  toward  her  young  one  that  cometh  out 
from  between  her  feet,  and  toward  her  children  which  she  shall 
bear;  for  she  shall  eat  them  for  want  of  all  things  secretly:  in  the 
siege  and  in  the  straitness,  wherewith  thine  enemy  shall  straiten  thee 
in  thy  gates. 

If  thou  wilt  not  observe  to  do  all  the  words  of  this  law  that  are 
written  in  this  book,  that  thou  mayest  fear  this  glorious  and  fearful 
name,  THE  LORD  THY  GOD;  then  the  LORD  will  make  thy  plagues 
wonderful,  and  the  plagues  of  thy  seed,  even  great  plagues,  and  of 
long  continuance,  and  sore  sicknesses,  and  of  long  continuance. 
And  he  will  bring  upon  thee  again  all  the  diseases  of  Egypt,  which 
thou  wast  afraid  of;  and  they  shall  cleave  unto  thee.  Also  every 
sickness,  and  every  plague,  which  is  not  written  in  the  book  of  this 
law,  them  will  the  LORD  bring  upon  thee,  until  thou  be  destroyed. 
And  ye  shall  be  left  few  in  number,  whereas  ye  were  as  the  stars  of 
heaven  for  multitude;  because  thou  didst  not  hearken  unto  the  voice 
of  the  LORD  thy  God.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  as  the  LORD 
rejoiced  over  you  to  do  you  good,  and  to  multiply  you;  so  the  LORD 
will  rejoice  over  you  to  cause  you  to  perish,  and  to  destroy  you ;  and 


280  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  RHETORIC 

ye  shall  be  plucked  from  off  the  land  whither  thou  goest  in  to  pos- 
sess it.  And  the  LORD  shall  scatter  thee  among  all  peoples,  from 
the  one  end  of  the  earth  even  unto  the  other  end  of  the  earth;  and 
there  thou  shalt  serve  other  gods,  which  thou  hast  not  known,  thou 
nor  thy  fathers,  even  wood  and  stone.  And  among  these  nations 
shalt  thou  find  no  ease,  and  there  shall  be  no  rest  for  the  sole  of  thy 
foot :  but  the  LORD  shall  give  thee  there  a  trembling  heart,  and  fail- 
ing of  eyes,  and  pining  of  soul :  and  thy  life  shall  hang  in  doubt 
before  thee;  and  thou  shalt  fear  night  and  day,  and  shalt  have  none 
assurance  of  thy  life :  in  the  morning  thou  shalt  say,  Would  God  it 
were  even  !  and  at  even  thou  shalt  say,  Would  God  it  were  morning ! 
for  the  fear  of  thine  heart  which  thou  shalt  fear,  and  for  the  sight  of 
thine  eyes  which  thou  shalt  see.  And  the  LORD  shall  bring  thee 
into  Egypt  again  with  ships,  by  the  way  whereof  I  said  unto  thee, 
Thou  shalt  see  it  no  more  again :  and  there  ye  shall  sell  yourselves 
unto  your  enemies  for  bondmen  and  for  bondwomen,  and  no  man 
shall  buy  you. 

xxix-xxxi.  8  FOURTH  ORATION 

THE  COVENANT  IN  THE  LAND  OF  MOAB 

The  fourth  oration  has  this  title  in  the  text,  although  the  scene 
appears  to  be  the  same.  After  a  brief  historic  survey,  Moses 
seems  to  review  the  different  classes  of  people  standing  before  him. 

Ye  stand  this  day  all  of  you  before  the  LORD  your  God;  your  heads, 
your  tribes,  your  elders,  and  your  officers,  even  all  the  men  of  Israel, 
your  little  ones,  your  wives,  and  thy  stranger  that  is  in  the  midst  of 
thy  camps,  from  the  hewer  of  thy  wood  unto  the  drawer  of  thy  water : 
that  thou  shouldest  enter  into  the  covenant  of  the  LORD  thy  God. 

We  are  thus  led  to  the  special  point  of  this  day's  speech.  It  is 
personal,  as  distinct  from  national  religion.  Moses  fears  lest  there 
may  be  some  man  or  woman,  or  some  family  or  tribe,  who  may 
nourish  idolatry  in  their  hearts,  and  think  to  escape  in  the  general 
righteousness; — 

lest  there  should  be  among  you  a  root  that  beareth  gall  and  worm- 
wood; and  it  come  to  pass,  when  he  heareth  the  words  of  this  curse, 
that  he  bless  himself  in  his  heart,  saying,  I  shall  have  peace,  though 
I  walk  in  the  stubbornness  of  mine  heart. 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  281 

Moses  declares  that  God  will  separate  that  man  or  that  woman 
unto  evil  out  of  all  the  tribes  of  Israel,  to  bring  upon  him  all  the 
curses  of  the  Covenant.  As  for  such  a  tribe  or  family :  the 
stranger  from  a  far  land,  the  children  of  the  days  to  come,  shall 
wonder  to  see  the  plagues  of  its  land,  and  how  it  is  brimstone, 
and  salt,  and  a  burning,  like  the  ruin  of  Sodom,  and  they  shall 
ask,  Wherefore  hath  the  Lord  done  thus  unto  this  land?  And 
they  shall  say,  Because  they  forsook  the  covenant  of  the  Lord,  the 
God  of  their  fathers.  The  secret  things  of  the  sin  belong  unto 
the  Lord  our  God ;  but  the  judgment  when  it  is  revealed  will 
belong  to  us  and  to  our  children  for  ever.1 

But  Moses  has  additional  words  of  mercy  to  speak,  as  well  as  of 
judgment.  When  all  these  things  are  come  upon  them,  the  bless- 
ing and  the  curse,  and  they  call  them  to  mind  among  all  the 
nations  whither  they  have  been  driven,  then  if  they  turn  with  all 
their  heart  unto  the  Lord  he  will  turn  their  captivity,  and  gather 
their  outcasts  from  the  uttermost  parts  of  heaven,  and  bring  them 
again  into  the  land  of  their  fathers,  and  do  them  good,  and  put 
these  curses  upon  their  enemies  :  if  only  they  turn  unto  the  Lord 
with  all  their  heart  and  with  all  their  soul. 

For  this  commandment  which  I  command  thee  this  day,  it  is  not  too 
hard  for  thee,  neither  is  it  far  off.  It  is  not  in  heaven,  that  thou 
shouldest  say,  Who  shall  go  up  for  us  to  heaven,  and  bring  it  unto 
us,  and  make  us  to  hear  it,  that  we  may  do  it?  Neither  is  it  beyond 
the  sea,  that  thou  shouldest  say,  Who  shall  go  over  the  sea  for  us, 
and  bring  it  unto  us,  and  make  us  to  hear  it,  that  we  may  do  it? 
But  the  word  is  very  nigh  unto  thee,  in  thy  mouth,  and  in  thy  heart, 
that  thou  mayest  do  it. 

The  Leader  of  the  people  thus  reaches  the  point  of  his  final 
appeal.  He  calls  heaven  and  earth  to  witness  against  them  this 
day,  that  he  has  set  before  them  life  and  death,  the  blessing  and 
the  curse.  Therefore,  he  cries  to  them, 

l  This  is  the  only  point  where  the  argument  of  the  orations  is  at  all  difficult. 
The  line  of  thought  is  given  by  verse  18  (of  chapter  xxix) :  the  distinction  of 
(a)  man  or  woman.  (6)  family  or  tribe ;  then  verses  20-21  follow  the  judgment  on 
(a),  verses  22-28  the  judgment  on  (6). 


282  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

Choose  life,  that  thou  mayest  live,  thou  and  thy  seed :  to  love  the 
LORD  thy  God,  to  obey  his  voice,  and  to  cleave  unto  him :  for  he  is 
thy  life,  and  the  length  of  thy  days :  that  thou  mayest  dwell  in  the 
land  which  the  LORD  sware  unto  thy  fathers,  to  Abraham,  to  Isaac, 
and  to  Jacob,  to  give  them. 

There  remains  the  personal  farewell.  Moses  tells  how  he  is  that 
day  an  hundred  and  twenty  years  old ;  and  the  mystic  strength 
that  had  supported  the  people  in  the  wilderness,  so  that  their  feet 
swelled  not  these  forty  years,  is  no  longer  vouchsafed  to  their 
leader :  "  I  can  no  more  go  out  and  come  in."  And  the  Lord  has 
said  to  him  that  he  shall  not  go  over  Jordan.  But  while  physical 
strength  is  failing,  the  words  on  the  old  man's  lips  are  of  strength 
and  courage  :  a  worn-out  leader  puts  courage  into  the  nation 
before  him,  and  into  Joshua,  whom  he  installs  as  leader  in  his 
place.  Thus  with  his  cry  of  "  Be  strong,  and  of  good  courage," 
and  "  The  Lord  shall  go  before  you,"  Moses  retires  from  his  office 
of  leader,  and  leaves  Joshua  in  his  place. 

The  orations  of  Moses  are  concluded :  but  not  yet  his  words. 
That  very  day,  as  he  is  presenting  himself  with  Joshua  his  suc- 
cessor in  the  Tent  of  Meeting,  the  call  comes  to 
Moses '^Song         put  njs  message  to  tne  peOpie  in  the  form  of  Song. 

His  doctrine  shall  drop  as  the  rain,  his  speech  distil 
as  the  dew,  while  he  sings  of  Jehovah  the  Rock,  the  God  of  faith- 
fulness. When  the  nations  were  divided,  Israel  was  retained  by 
the  Creator  for  himself. 

For  the  LORD'S  portion  is  his  people : 

Jacob  is  the  lot  of  his  inheritance. 

He  found  him  in  a  desert  land, 

And  in  the  waste  howling  wilderness . 

He  compassed  him  about,  he  cared  for  him, 

He  kept  him  as  the  apple  of  his  eye : 

As  an  eagle  that  stirreth  up  her  nest, 

That  fluttereth  over  her  young, 

He  spread  abroad  his  wings,  he  took  them, 

He  bare  them  on  his  pinions : 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  283* 

The  LORD  alone  did  lead  him, 

And  there  was  no  strange  god  with  him. 

He  made  him  ride  on  the  high  places  of  the  earth, 

And  he  did  eat  the  increase  of  the  field ; 

And  he  made  him  to  suck  honey  out  of  the  rock, 

And  oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock; 

Butter  of  kine,  and  milk  of  sheep, 

With  fat  of  lambs, 

And  rams  of  the  breed  of  Bashan,  and  goats, 

With  the  fat  of  kidneys  of  wheat; 

And  of  the  blood  of  the  grape  thou  drankest  wine. 

The  joyousness  of  the  song  clouds  over,  as  it  tells  how  Jeshurun 
waxed  fat  and  kicked,  and  moved  the  Lord  to  jealousy  with  new 
gods,  that  came  up  but  yesterday,  whom  their  fathers  did  not 
know.  The  fire  of  Divine  anger  burns  as  from  the  lowest  pit, 
devouring  the  increase  of  the  earth.  Visions  of  mischiefs  heaped 
upon  the  faithless  people  pass  before  us,  of  arrows  spent  upon 
them,  wasting  hunger,  burning  heat,  teeth  of  beasts,  poison  of 
crawling  things,  without  the  Sword  bereaving  and  terrors  within : 
only  short  of  entire  destruction  does  the  judgment  stop,  lest  the 
adversary  should  misdeem,  and  think  that  their  hand,  and  not 
Jehovah's  wrath,  had  done  all.  And  how  blind  and  void  of  wis- 
dom must  the  nation  be  not  to  see  the  meaning  of  it  all,  and  that 
their  Rock  has  forsaken  them  ! 

For  their  rock  is  not  as  our  Rock, 

Even  our  enemies  themselves  being  judges. 

And  the  imagery  flows  forth  to  paint  the  loathly  gods  to  which 
Israel  has  given  preference  —  things  of  rottenness  like  grapes  of 
Sodom,  bitter  as  clusters  of  gall,  poisonous  as  wine  of  dragons  :  — 
until,  by  a  bold  transition,  the  description  is  made  to  produce 
revulsion  in  the  mind  of  God  himself.  He  thinks  with  compla- 
cency of  vengeance  yet  stored  among  his  treasures,  that  he  may 
use  once  more  on  his  people's  side :  waiting  till  their  strength  is 
exhausted,  and  their  last  hope  gone,  and  then  raising  himself  in 
wrath  to  scorn  their  helpless  idols,  and  recompense  vengeance  to 


284  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  RHETORIC 

their  adversaries.  And  so  with  the  joy  of  Jehovah  returned  to  his 
fallen  people,  this  Song  of  the  Rock  of  Israel  concludes. 

Then  the  end  comes.  The  whole  people  understand  it,  and  all 
are  waiting  to  see  their  Leader  set  out  on  the  mystic  journey  on 
The  Passing  of  which  none  may  accompany  him.  Heads  of  the 
Moses,  xxxii.  48-  tribes  stand  out  from  the  masses  of  the  people  and 
line  the  route  by  which  Moses  must  pass.  The 
first  sight  of  the  whole  nation,  which  he  has  ruled  so  long,  seems 
to  kindle  in  Moses  a  vision,  which  reaches  us  only  dimly,  in  his 
words  of  Jehovah  coming  forth  from  amidst  his  holy  ones,  a  fiery 
law  at  his  right  hand,  the  holy  ones  of  the  peoples  sitting  at  his 
feet.  Then,  passing  along  the  leaders  of  the  tribes,  he  speaks  last 
words  to  each :  stirring  words  of  past  battle  cries,  or  pregnant 
sayings  destined  to  be  watchwords  in  the  future.  Reuben,  his 
men  never  few.  Judah,  sufficient  of  his  hands.  Levi  — 

Who  said  of  his  father,  and  of  his  mother, 

I  have  not  seen  him; 

Neither  did  he  acknowledge  his  brethren, 
Nor  knew  his  own  children, 

when  he  took  sides  with  Jehovah  at  the  waters  of  strife.  Benjamin, 
beloved  of  the  Lord,  who  dwelleth  between  his  shoulders.  Bless- 
ings on  the  princely  Joseph. 

Blessed  of  the  LORD  be  his  land : 

For  the  precious  things  of  heaven,  for  the  dew, 

And  for  the  deep  that  coucheth  beneath, 

And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  fruits  of  the  sun, 

And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  growth  of  the  moons, 

And  for  the  chief  things  of  the  ancient  mountains, 

And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  everlasting  hills, 

And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  earth  and  the  fulness  thereof, 

And  the  good  will  of  him  that  dwelt  in  the  bush. 

Zebulun,  blessed  in  his  going  out  over  the  seas,  and  Issachar  in 
his  tent  life  at  home.  Naphtali,  with  the  blessings  of  the  western 
sea  and  the  sunny  south ;  Asher,  dipping  his  foot  in  the  oil  of  his 


SPOKEN  RHETORIC:    DEUTERONOMY  285 

own  vineyards,  shod  with  the  iron  and  brass  of  his  mines.  The 
whole  line  of  the  tribes  past,  Moses  lifts  hands  and  voice  in  the 
final  blessing. 

There  is  none  like  unto  God,  O  Jeshurun, 
Who  rideth  upon  the  heaven  for  thy  help, 
And  in  his  excellency  on  the  skies. 
The  eternal  God  is  thy  dwelling-place, 
And  underneath  are  the  everlasting  arms. 

From  the  height  of  lyric  song  we  drop  to  simple,  bare  prose : 
fittest  of  forms  to  convey  the  solitary  journey  from  which  there  is 
to  be  no  return;  the  going  up  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,  the  long 
gaze  over  the  land  of  promise ;  the  lonely  death ;  the  burial  in 
the  sepulchre  that  no  man  knoweth.  So  the  days  of  weeping  in  the 
mourning  for  Moses  were  ended. 


BOOK  FIFTH 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE   BIBLE,  OR  WISDOM 
LITERATURE 


CHAPTER  '  PAGE 

XIII.  FORMS  OF  WISDOM  LITERATURE 289 

XIV.  THE  SACRED  BOOKS  OF  WISDOM 319 

XV.    l  THE  WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON  '         .  .       .       .341 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FORMS    OF    WISDOM    LITERATURE 

THIS  fifth  book  is  reserved  for  the  Philosophy  of  the 
that  is  to  say,  for  the  wide  range  of  Scriptural  literature  which  is 
the   counterpart  of  our   modern   Philosophy  and 

Science.    These  two  names,  however,  are  scarcely     Wisdwfl '  Llt~ 

•    erncurC 

to  be  found  in  the  sacred  writings ;  the  literature 
we  are  to  consider  is,  in  the  Bible  itself,  unifurmi/  designated 
•Wisdom.'  The  word  is  suggestive  of  one,  if  not  both,  the  main 
distinctions  which  separate  Biblical  Philosophy  from  modern 
thought.  If  it  be  not  pressing  the  word  tot»  tar,  there  is  a  pictur- 
esqueness  in  the  name  '  Wisdom  '  that  harmonises  with  the  pictur- 
esqueness  of  form  never  absent  from  Scriptural  literature  of  thought. 
Modern  works  of  science  confine  themselves  strictly  to  severe 
prose  style.  But  the  literature  of  Wisdom  borrows  often  the  form 
of  lyric,  and  sometimes  even  oi  dramatic  poetry,  and  where  it  is 
furthest  removed  from  these,  it  still  leaves  the  impression  of  attach- 
ing as  much  consequence  xo  the  artistic  form  as  to  the  thought. 
More  important  than  this  is  the  suggestion  in  the  name  '  Wisdom ' 
that  its  literature  will  have  a  practical  bearing  on  human  conduct. 
A  great  part  of  such  writings  is  made  up  of  specific  observations  or 
precepts  in  matters  of  social  and  family  life,  of  business  manage- 
ment, public  policy,  and  general  self-government.  And  where  such 
works  as  kcdesiastes  or  the  Wisdom  of 'Solomon1  are  occupied  in 

1 1  assume  throughout  this  part  of  my  subject  the  Apocryphal  books  of  Wisdom 
of  Solomon  ^nd  Ecclesiasticus.  The  distinction  implied  in  the  word  '  Apocryphal '  is 
one  of  theology :  according  to  the  Anglican  formula,  "  the  Church  doth  read  [them] 

289 


290  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

interpreting  history,  or  reading  the  riddle  of  life,  they  make  it 
clear  that  the  argument  is  followed  with  a  constant  reference  to 
the  bearing  of  the  whole  on  conduct.  It  is  only  when  comparison 
is  made  with  the  kindred  department  of  Prophecy  that  we  see  the 
right  of  Wisdom  literature  to  be  classified  under  the  head  of  Phi- 
losophy, the  organ  of  reflection.  Prophecy  also  is  concerned  with 
conduct ;  but  it  starts  always  with  a  Divine  message,  on  which  all 
that  it  contains  is  based.  Of  course  Wisdom  is  in  harmony  with 
the  revelation  contained  in  Law  and  Prophecy,  but  it  never  appeals 
to  it.  The  sayings  of  the  Wise  come  to  us  only  as  the  result  of 
their  own  reflections,  in  combination  with  the  general  tradition  of 
Wisdom. 

The  present  chapter  is  occupied  with  the  various  literary  forms 
in  which  this  Wisdom  literature  of  the  Bible  and 
Literature18'  APOcryPha  is  conveyed  to  us.  The  two  chapters 
that  follow  will  treat  the  separate  Books  of  Wis- 
dom as  they  stand. 

The  starting-point  for  this  whole  class  of  literature  is  the  Proverb. 
There  were  two  sources  of  Hebrew  proverbs :  Folk-lore,  and  the 

sayings  of  the  Wise  Men.  The  popular  proverbs 
The  Proverb 

that  float  from  mouth  to  mouth  appear  only  by  acci- 
dent in  the  Bible.  "  Out  of  the  wicked  cometh  forth  wickedness  " 
is  an  ancient  saying  hurled  by  David  at  Saul,  in  the  wilderness  of 

Eneedi,  when  Saul's  groundless  suspicions  of  him 
Popular  Proverbs  f. 

had  just  been  exposed.     "  Is  Saul  also  among  the 

prophets?"  is  a  proverb  that  has  descended  from  those  days  to 
our  own. 

One  form  of  popular  proverb  was  the  Riddle ;   and,  just  as 
great  part  of  the  intercourse  between  the  Wise  —  between  Solo- 
mon and  Hiram,   or  Solomon   and  the  Queen  of 
Sheba  —  consisted  in  hard  questions   to  be  inter- 
preted, so  popular  festivities  made  opportunities  for  the  guessing 

for  example  of  life  and  instruction  of  manners ;  but  yet  doth  it  not  apply  them  to 
establish  any  doctrine."  As  doctrinal  questions  are  excluded  from  this  work,  the 
distinction  does  not  here  apply.  The  two  books  are  of  the  highest  literary  interest 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  291 

of  riddles.  One  cycle  or  'game  of  riddles'  has  been  preserved 
complete  in  the  Book  of  Judges.  It  connects  itself  naturally  with 
Samson,  whose  magnificent  frame  and  redundant 
high  spirits  make  him  the  nearest  approach  in  the 
Bible  to  a  humorous  personage.  Samson,  it  will  be  recollected, 
loved  a  woman  of  the  Philistines,  and  after  asking  her  hand  through 
his  father  went  down  to  Timnah  to  the  wedding  feast.  The  feast 
lasted  a  week,  during  which  the  hero  had  to  endure  the  company 
of  thirty  guests  from  the  Philistine  people  he  hated  and  despised. 
Denied  the  vent  of  physical  violence,  his  irritation  took  the  form 
of  a  wager  :  the  amount,  thirty  linen  garments  and  thirty  changes 
of  raiment ;  the  subject  of  contention,  that  the  Philistines  would 
not  guess  his  riddle.  The  wager  was  accepted  and  the  riddle  put 

forth. 

Out  of  the  eater  came  forth  meat, 

And  out  of  the  strong  came  forth  sweetness. 

According  to  modern  notions  of  riddles,  Samson  was  not  playing 
fairly,  for  his  question  involved  information  exclusively  his  own. 
On  his  walks  to  and  fro  between  his  home  and  the  home  of  the 
bride  he  had  one  day  met  a  young  lion ;  the  lion  roared  at  him, 
and  Samson,  by  a  sudden  impulse,  was  led  to  seize  the  brute  with 
his  bare  hands  and  tear  it  in  pieces ;  the  next  time  he  passed  he 
found  a  cluster  of  bees  settled  in  the  torn  carcase  of  the  lion,  and 
actually  tasted  their  honey :  this  strange  conjunction  was  the 
foundation  of  his  riddle.  But  the  Philistine  guests,  in  their  turn, 
could  violate  fair  play;  they  brought  pressure  upon  the  bride, 
and  she  coaxed  the  secret  out  of  her  lover.  At  the  end  of  the 
seven  days  the  Philistines  came  to  answer  the  riddle ;  and  their 
answer,  like  the  original  question,  makes  a  single  couplet : 

What  is  sweeter  than  honey? 
And  what  is  stronger  than  a  lion? 

Samson  turns  upon  them  with  a  repartee  couched  in  the  same 

form  : 

If  ye  had  not  ploughed  with  my  heifer, 

Ye  had  not  found  out  my  riddle. 


292  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

Samson,  with  his  usual  grim  humour,  slew  thirty  Philistines,  and  sent 
their  raiment  in  payment  of  the  wager ;  then  went  home  in  dudgeon, 
and  left  the  bride,  who  was  soon  appropriated  by  another  husband. 

But  it  is  with  the  second  type  of  proverbs  that  we  are  mainly 

concerned.    The  single  couplet,  which  we  have  just 
The  Unit  Proverb  '  '  .    J 

noted  in  connection  with  popular  riddles,  is  the 

root  of  the  forms  taken  by  the  sayings  of  the  Wise  Men.1  Such 
a  proverb  may  be  defined  as  a  unit  of  thought  in  a  unit  of  form. 
These  Unit  Proverbs  exhibit  two  varieties.  In  one  type  the 
thought  is  conveyed  in  a  single  line,  and  the  other  line  of  the 
couplet  is  supplementary.  The  single  line  contains  all  that  philo- 
sophic reflection  requires;  but  the  sense  of  form,  even  in  the 
simplest  Wisdom  literature,  is  so  strong  that  the  thought  must  be 
filled  out  to  the  dimensions  of  the  received  pattern  before  it  can 
obtain  currency  as  a  proverb. 

He  that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty, 
And  he  that  ruleth  his  spirit  than  he  that  taketh  a  city. 

%* 

The  heart  knoweth  its  own  bitterness; 

And  a  stranger  doth  not  intermeddle  with  its  joy. 

The  supplement  in  these  two  examples  is  a  parallel  to  the  main 
thought,  or  its  converse.  Where  the  essence  of  the  proverb  is 
deep  or  obscure,  the  supplementary  line  comes  to  interpret  it. 

The  fruit  of  the  righteous  is  a  tree  of  life; 
And  he  that  is  wise  winneth  souls. 

How  can  fruit  be  a  tree  ?  The  supplement  interprets  of  the  wise 
life  which  is  the  fruit  of  righteous  endeavour,  and  which  has  an 
attractive  force  on  all  around,  bringing  forth  in  them  lives  of  like 
righteousness.  The  supplement  may  precede  the  thought :  — 

1  The  triplet  is  not  entirely  absent  even  from  such  elementary  anthologies  as 
that  constituting  the  second  book  of  our  Biblical  Proverbs  (e.g.  xix.  7,  23 ;  com- 
pare xxiv.  27).  There  is  an  interesting  form  of  unit  proverb  that  can  be  read 
either  as  a  couplet  or  triplet :  examples  are  Proverbs  x.  26 ;  and  especially  xxv.  3, 
12,  20;  xxvi.  i,  3,  etc. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  293 

The  LORD  hath  made  everything  for  its  own  end : 
Yea,  even  the  wicked  for  the  day  of  evil. 

The  point  of  this  proverb  is  clearly  that  the  wicked  exist  for  the 
purpose  of  being  destroyed :  the  statement  is  made  the  fuller  by 
the  reminder  that  everything  has  its  purpose.  Two  proverbs  may 
be  made  out  of  the  same  thought  with  different  supplements. 

Though  hand  join  in  hand,  the  evil  man  shall  not  be  unpunished : 
But  the  seed  of  the  righteous  shall  be  delivered. 

*  * 
* 

Everyone  that  is  proud  in  heart  is  an  abomination  to  the  LORD. 
Though  hand  join  in  hand,  he  shall  not  be  unpunished. 

In  the  other  variety  of  Unit  Proverb  there  is  no  room  for 
supplementary  matter :  the  thought,  which  is  the  essence  of  the 
saying,  requires  the  whole  of  the  proverb  for  its  expression,  and 
is  distributed  through  the  two  lines  of  the  couplet. 

It  is  naught,  it  is  naught,  saith  the  buyer : 
But  when  he  is  gone  his  way,  then  he  boasteth. 

V 

He  kisseth  the  lips 

That  giveth  a  right  answer. 

To  this  variety  belong  the  large  class  of  proverbs  which  are 
founded  on  a  comparison. 

As  vinegar  to  the  teeth,  and  as  smoke  to  the  eyes, 
So  is  the  sluggard  to  them  that  send  him. 

V 

A  rebuke  entereth  deeper  into  one  that  hath  understanding 
Than  an  hundred  stripes  into  a  fool. 

V 

Seven  days  are  the  days  of  mourning  for  the  dead; 

But  for  a  fool  and  an  ungodly  man,  all  the  days  of  his  life. 

*  * 

The  fining  pot  is  for  silver,  and  the  furnace  for  gold, 
And  a  man  is  tried  by  his  praise. 


BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 


It  appears,  then,  that  the  parallel  couplet,  which  we  have  seen 
as  the  most  elementary  type  of  Hebrew  verse,  is  also  the  fixed  form 

for  the  Unit  Proverb  of  Philosophy,  a  department 
The  Unit  Proverb 
as  the  germ  of       tnat  naturally  belongs  to  prose.     The  Unit  Proverb 

wisdom  Litera-  thus  makes  a  meeting-point  for  prose  and  verse. 
The  Wisdom  literature,  developing  from  this  as  germ, 
takes  two  directions,  and  for  every  poetic  form  which  it  throws  off 
a  corresponding  form  of  prose  is  to  be  found.  This  will  be  best 
conveyed  by  a  table. 

Unit  Proverb 


germ 


tending  Verse-wards 


tending  Prose-wards 


Epigram 

germ  with  Verse 
expansion 


Sonnet 

theme  with  high  paral- 
lelism 


Maxim 

germ  with  Prose 
comment 


Essay 

theme  with   miscellaneous 
thoughts  gathered  round  it 


Fixed  Sonnet       Free  Sonnet       Proverb  Cluster       Essay  Proper 


fixed  to  one 
particular 
number  form 

free  to  ass 
high  parall 
of  any  k 

ume 
elism 
nd 

the  d 
fixed  tc 
fo 

etails 
gnomic 
rm 

gnomic  details 
freely 
worked  up 

Dramatic  Monologue 

by  attraction  to  Drama 


Rhetoric  Encomium 

by  attraction  to  Rhetoric 


On  the  side  of  verse,  we  have  first  the  Epigram.     It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  epigrams  of  antiquity  did  not  necessarily 

exhibit  the  pointedness  of  expression  and  flash  of 
The  Epigram  .        ...  , 

wit  which   modern   literature   associates  with    the 

name.  A  Greek  epigram  needed  nothing  more  than  the  concise 
expression  of  a  complete  thought  within  the  limits  of  a  few  coup- 
lets. The  Hebrew  epigrams  may  be  said  to  be  more  pointed 
than  the  Greek,  since  each  has  buried  in  it  one  of  these  '  gnomes ' 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  295 

or  unit  proverbs.  The  distinction  of  the  Epigram  is  that  two  of 
its  lines  (not  necessarily  consecutive)  will  be  found  to  constitute 
a  gnomic  germ,  of  which  the  rest  is  the  expansion.  In  the  exam- 
ples to  be  quoted  these  lines  will  be  distinguished  by  italics.1 

A  Chaplet  of  Instruction 
My  son,  hear  the  instruction  of  thy  father, 

And  forsake  not  the  law  of  thy  mother  : 
For  they  shall  be  a  chaplet  of  grace  unto  thy  head, 
And  chains  about  thy  neck. 

#  * 

* 

The  Fall  of  the  Righteous  and  the  Wicked 
Lay  not  -wait,  O  wicked  man,  against  the  habitation  of  the  righteous  ; 

Spoil  not  his  resting  place : 
For  a  righteous  man  falleth  seven  times,  and  riseth  up  again: 

But  the  wicked  are  overthrown  by  calamity. 

V 

The  Fool's  Friends 
The  fool  will  say,  "  I  have  no  friend, 

And  I  have  no  thanks  for  my  good  deeds  ; 
And  they  that  eat  my  bread  are  of  evil  tongue" 

How  oft,  and  of  how  many,  shall  he  be  laughed  to  scorn ! 

In  each  case  the  lines  italicised  would  stand  alone  as  a  unit  prov- 
erb. In  the  first  example  a  second  proverb  is  added  to  support 
the  first.  In  the  other  two  cases,  each  line  of  the  germ  saying  is 
followed  by  another  line  enforcing  or  interpreting  it.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  germ  proverb  need  not  be  at  the  commencement ; 
in  the  example  that  follows  it  comes  at  the  end. 

Gluttony 

Hear  thou,  my  son,  and  be  wise, 

And  guard  thy  heart  in  the  way. 

Be  not  among  winebibbers; 

Among  gluttonous  eaters  of  flesh : 

For  the  drunkard  and  the  glutton  shall  come  to  poverty, 
And  drowsiness  shall  clothe  a  man  with  rags. 

i  References  to  the  examples  in  this  chapter  are  omitted,  as  the  Epigrams,  Essays, 
etc.,  are  cited  by  their  titles  in  the  table  of  Appendix  II. 


296  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

To  make  longer  epigrams,  we  find  the  first  line  of  a  unit  prov- 
erb buttressed  by  a  parallel  line,  while  to  the  second  a  full 
explanation  is  appended. 

Hospitality  of  the  Evil  Eye 

Eat  thou  not  the  bread  of  him  that  hath  an  evil  eye, 
Neither  desire  thou  his  dainties : 

For  as  one  that  reckoneth  within  himself,  so  is  he  : 

Eat  and  drink,  saith  he  to  thee, 

But  his  heart  is  not  with  thee. 

The  morsel  which  thou  hast  eaten  shalt  thou  vomit  up, 

And  lose  thy  sweet  words. 


Wisdom  and  Honey 

My  son,  eat  thou  honey,  for  it  is  good  ;  . 

And  the  honeycomb,  which  is  sweet  to  thy  taste; 

So  shalt  thou  know  -wisdom  to  be  unto  thy  soul : 
If  thou  hast  found  it,  then  shall  there  be  a  reward, 
And  thy  hope  shall  not  be  cut  off. 

More  elaborate  in  structure  is  the  epigram  of  Lemuel's  mother , 
first,  each  line  of  the  germ  proverb  is  supported  by  a  parallel  line, 
then  each  has  a  whole  quatrain  antithetical  to  it. 

Kings  and  Wine 

It  is  not  for  kings,  O  Lemuel,  it  is  not  for  kings  to  drink  wine, 

Nor  for  princes  to  say,  Where  is  strong  drink? 
Lest  they  drink,  and  forget  the  law, 
And  pervert  the  judgement  of  any  that  is  afflicted. 

Give  strong  drink  unto  him  that  is  ready  to  perish, 

And  wine  unto  the  bitter  in  soul : 

Let  him  drink,  and  forget  his  poverty, 

And  remember  his  misery  no  more. 
Open  thy  mouth  for  the  dumb, 
In  the  cause  of  all  such  as  are  left  desolate. 
Open  thy  mouth,  judge  righteously, 
And  minister  judgement  to  the  poor  and  needy. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  297 

Exactly  corresponding  to  these  Epigrams  in  verse  we  find,  on 
the    prose   side,  compositions   that   will   here  be        Maxims 
called  Maxims.1     Their  form  is  that  of  a  text  with 
a  comment ;   a  germ   proverb  (or  the  essential  words  of  it)  is 
merged  in  what  is  a  prose  expansion  of  the  same. 

Wisdom  is  as  good  as  an  inheritance :  yea,  more  excellent  is  it  for 
them  that  see  the  sun.  For  wisdom  is  a  defence,  even  as  money  is 
a  defence :  but  the  excellency  of  knowledge  is,  that  wisdom  preserveth 
the  life  of  him  that  hath  it. 


Make  not  merry  in  much  luxury ;  neither  be  tied  to  the  expense 
thereof.  Be  not  made  a  beggar  by  banqueting  upon  borrowing  when 
thou  hast  nothing  in  thy  purse.  A  workman  that  is  a  drunkard 
shall  not  become  rich. 


The  words  of  a  -wise  man's  mouth  are  gracious ;  but  the  lips  of  a 
fool  will  swallow  up  himself.  The  beginning  of  the  words  of  his 
mouth  is  foolishness :  and  the  end  of  his  talk  is  mischievous  madness. 
A  fool  also  multiplieth  words:  yet  man  knoweth  not  what  shall  be; 
and  that  which  shall  be  after  him,  who  can  tell  him? 

These  are  among  the  shorter  maxims ;  longer  examples  are  to 
be  found  in  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes. 

Two  are  better  than  one ;  because  they  have  a  good  reward  for 
their  labour.  For  if  they  fall,  one  will  lift  up  his  fellow :  but  woe  to 
him  that  is  alone  when  he  falleth,  and  hath  not  another  to  lift  him 
up.  Again,  if  two  lie  together,  then  they  have  warmth :  but  how 
can  one  be  warm  alone?  And  if  a  man  prevail  against  him  that  is 
alone,  two  shall  withstand  him;  and  a  threefold  cord  is  not  quickly 
broken. 

1 1  am  not  aware  of  any  English  term  that  exactly  describes  the  class  of  compo- 
sitions here  brought  forward.  The  word  '  maxim '  in  English  is  used  loosely.  Mr. 
Joseph  Jacobs  in  his  (Golden  Treasury)  edition  of  Gracian  contends,  not  without 
reason,  that  the  term  has  a  special  application  to  sayings  which  are  practical  and 
not  meditative.  At  the  same  time  the  '  maxims '  he  is  editing  have  a  closer  resem- 
blance to  this  form  of  text  and  comment  than  anything  outside  Biblical  Wisdom. 


298  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

As  with  the  epigram,  the  text  is  not  necessarily  at  the  commence- 
ment, but  may  be  absorbed  into  the  body  of  the  maxim. 

Speak  not  one  against  another,  brethren.  He  that  speaketh  against 
a  brother,  or  judgeth  his  brother,  speaketh  against  the  law,  and  judgeth 
the  law :  but  if  thou  judgest  the  law,  thou  art  not  a  doer  of  the  law, 
but  a  judge.  One  only  is  the  lawgiver  and  judge,  even  he  who  is  able 
to  save  and  to  destroy :  but  who  art  thou  that  judgest  thy  neighbour  ? 

The  germ  of  this  maxim  is  the  paradox,  "  He  that  speaketh  against 
a  brother  speaketh  against  the  law" ;  and  it  illustrates  how  much 
thought  can  be  packed  into  one  of  these  gnomic  sentences.  The 
Apostle  is  writing  to  those  whose  reverence  for  'the  law*  had 
amounted  to  a  superstition ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  underlying  ideas 
of  the  whole  epistle  that  the  Christian's  'liberty'  is,  not  a  laxer, 
but  a  higher  law.  In  this  saying  the  writer  lays  down  that  one 
who  is  censorious  against  another  is  impugning  his  brother's 
liberty  of  action,  is  therefore  impugning  that  which  the  new  dis- 
pensation has  made  the  highest  law. 

Continuing  to  follow  the  prose  side  of  our  table,  we  are  brought 
to  that  which  may  be  considered  the  most  important  of  the  forms 

assumed  by  Wisdom  literature —  the  Essay.     The 
The  Essay 

word  has  been  used  somewhat  loosely  in  modern 

speech,  but  it  essentially  implies  two  things  :  first,  a  composition 
professing  only  a  fragmentary  treatment  of  a  subject ;  and  sec- 
ondly, that  the  details  of  this  composition  need  have  no  mutual 
bond  except  their  relevancy  to  the  topic  which  stands  as  title  of 
the  Essay.  If  more  than  this  goes  to  any  composition — if,  for 
example,  there  is  methodical  arrangement  or  formal  investigation 
—  then  the  name  '  treatise  '  would  be  more  proper ;  the  Essay  is 
bound  to  nothing  beyond  miscellaneous  thoughts  collected  around 
a  common  theme.  This  description  applies  to  the  Essays  of  the 
Bible  and  Apocrypha ;  but  upon  these  a  further  characteristic  is 
stamped  by  their  gnomic  origin.  Indeed,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  recognise  a  type  of  composition  which  makes  a  half-way  stage 


FORMS  OF  WISDOM  LITERATURE  299 

between   the   Proverb   and   the  Essay.     This  we  shall  call  the 

'  Proverb  Cluster ' :  a  number  of  proverbs  (includ- 

...  ,  ,         Proverb  Clusters 

ing  maxims  and  epigrams)  are  collected  together 

around  a  common  theme,  each  retaining  its  independence  and 
fixed  gnomic  form.  To  make  an  Essay,  the  component  parts  are 
freely  worked  together  into  a  new  style ;  though  the  Wisdom 
Essays  continually  suggest  their  gnomic  origin,  and  often  a  con- 
siderable number  of  their  sentences  will  stand  as  independent 
proverbs. 

We  are  able,  in  the  literature  which  has  come  down  to  us,  to 
watch  the  process  by  which  Essays  have  been  evolved  out  of 
Proverbs.     I  propose  to  bring  this  out  by  placing  Development  of 
side  by  side  three  compositions ;  the  matter  of  the  Essays  out  of 
three  is  largely  the  same,  and  it  is  clear  that  the  Proveibs 
later  authors  have  borrowed  from  the  earlier ;  in  form,  they  repre- 
sent three  stages  in  the  development  of  the  Essay. 

On  the  Government  of  the  Tongue 

Winnow  not  with  every  wind,  and  walk  not  in  every  path :  thus 
doeth  the  sinner  that  hath  a  double  tongue. 

Be  stedfast  in  thy  understanding;    and  let  thy  word  be  one. 

Be  swift  to  hear;    and  with  patience  make  thine  answer. 

If  thou  hast  understanding,  answer  thy  neighbour;  and  if  not, 
let  thy  hand  be  upon  thy  mouth. 

Glory  and  dishonour  is  in  talk :  and  the  tongue  of  a  man  is  his 
fall. 

Be  not  called  a  whisperer;  and  lie  not  in  wait  with  thy  tongue: 
for  upon  the  thief  there  is  shame,  and  an  evil  condemnation  upon 
him  that  hath  a  double  tongue. 

In  a  great  matter  and  in  a  small,  be  not  ignorant;  and  instead  of 
a  friend  become  not  an  enemy;  for  an  evil  name  shall  inherit  shame 
and  reproach :  even  so  shall  the  sinner  that  hath  a  double  tongue. 

The  above  is  plainly  a  Proverb  Cluster :  each  paragraph  is  an 
independent  saying,  which  has  a  bearing  upon  the  general  subject, 
but  no  bond  with  the  other  paragraphs ;  any  one  of  these  could 
be  removed  without  the  unity  of  the  whole  being  affected.  In 


300  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

the  extract  which  next  follows,  consecutive  sentences  have  fused 
together  into  connectedness  of  thought ;  but  there  still  remain  a 
considerable  number  of  them  which  make  complete  proverbs,  and 
some  of  these  could  be  cut  out  without  damage  to  the  rest. 

On  the  Tongue 

If  thou  blow  a  spark,  it  shall  burn;  if  thou  spit  upon  it,  it  shall 
be  quenched:  and  both  these  shall  come  out  of  thy  mouth. 
Curse  the  whisperer  and  double-tongued:  for  he  hath  destroyed 
many  that  were  at  peace.  A  third  person's  tongue  hath  shaken 
many,  and  dispersed  them  from  nation  to  nation;  and  it  hath 
pulled  down  strong  cities,  and  overthrown  the  houses  of  great 
men.  A  third  person's  tongue  hath  cast  out  brave  women  and 
deprived  them  of  their  labours.  He  that  hearkeneth  unto  it  shall 
not  find  rest,  nor  shall  he  dwell  quietly.  The  stroke  of  a  whip 
maketh  a  mark  in  the  flesh;  but  the  stroke  of  a  tongue  will  break 
bones.  Many  have  fallen  by  the  edge  of  the  sword :  yet  not  so 
many  as  they  that  have  fallen  because  of  the  tongue.  Happy  is  he 
that  is  sheltered  from  it,  that  hath  not  passed  through  the  wrath 
thereof;  that  hath  not  drawn  its  yoke,  and  hath  not  been  bound 
with  its  bands.  *  For  the  yoke  thereof  is  a  yoke  of  iron,  and  the 
bands  thereof  are  bands  of  brass.  The  death  thereof  is  an  evil 
death;  and  Hades  were  better  than  it.  It  shall  not  have  rule  over 
godly  men;  and  they  shall  not  be  burned  in  its  flame.  They  that 
forsake  the  Lord  shall  fall  into  it,  and  it  shall  burn  among  them, 
and  shall  not  be  quenched :  it  shall  be  sent  forth  upon  them  as  a 
lion ;  and  as  a  leopard  it  shall  destroy  them.  Look  that  thou  hedge 
thy  possession  about  with  thorns;  bind  up  thy  silver  and  thy  gold; 
and  make  a  weight  and  a  balance  for  thy  words;  and  make  a  door 
and  a  bar  for  thy  mouth.  Take  heed  lest  thou  slip  therein;  lest 
thou  fall  before  one  that  lieth  in  wait. 

The  difference  between  this  passage  and  that  which  follows  is 
only  one  of  degree.  When  the  same  topic  is  presented  by  St. 
James,  we  find  connectedness  of  thought  reigning  throughout,  and 
the  free  flow  of  Essay  style  has  prevailed  completely  over  the 
independence  of  sentences  that  belong  to  proverbs  ;  only  here  and 
there  the  turn  of  a  sentence  reminds  us  of  the  gnomic  origin  of 
this  class  of  Essay. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  301 

The  Responsibility  of  Speech 

Be  not  many  teachers,  my  brethren,  knowing  that  we  shall  receive 
heavier  judgement.  For  in  many  things  we  all  stumble.  If  any  stum- 
bleth  not  in  word,  the  same  is  a  perfect  man,  able  to  bridle  the 
whole  body  also.  Now  if  we  put  the  horses'  bridles  into  their 
mouths,  that  they  may  obey  us,  we  turn  about  their  whole  body 
also.  Behold,  the  ships  also,  though  they  are  so  great,  and  are  driven 
by  rough  winds,  are  yet  turned  about  by  a  very  small  rudder,  whither 
the  impulse  of  the  steersman  willeth.  So  the  tongue  also  is  a  little 
member,  and  boasteth  great  things.  Behold,  how  much  wood  is 
kindled  by  how  small  a  fire !  And  the  tongue  is  a  fire :  the  world  of 
iniquity  among  our  members  is  the  tongue,  which  defileth  the  whole 
body,  and  setteth  on  fire  the  wheel  of  nature,  and  is  set  on  fire  by 
hell.  For  every  kind  of  beasts  and  birds,  of  creeping  things  and 
things  in  the  sea,  is  tamed,  and  hath  been  tamed  by  mankind :  but 
the  tongue  can  no  man  tame;  it  is  a  restless  evil,  it  is  full  of  deadly 
poison.  Therewith  bless  we  the  Lord  and  Father;  and  therewith 
curse  we  men,  which  are  made  after  the  likeness  of  God :  out  of  the 
same  mouth  cometh  forth  blessing  and  cursing.  My  brethren,  these 
things  ought  not  so  to  be.  Doth  the  fountain  send  forth  from  the 
same  opening  sweet  water  and  bitter?  can. a  fig  tree,  my  brethren, 
yield  olives,  or  a  vine  figs?  Neither  can  salt  water  yield  sweet. 

There  is  a  whole  literature  of  essays  in  the  Wisdom  books  of 
the  Bible  and  the  Apocrypha.    They  are  not  essays  in  the  more 

modern  sense  which  the  English  reader  associates 

,         ,  .         Wisdom  Essays 

with  the  name  of  Lord  Macaulay  :  but  they  rather 

represent  the  oldest  type  of  such  compositions,  to  which  contribu- 
tions were  made  by  Bacon  and  by  Montaigne,  by  Feltham  and  by  the 
author  of  the  Microcosmography.  Indeed,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  these  writers  (Montaigne  excepted)  owed  largely  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Ecclesiasticus  and  kindred  books  the  sententiousness  of 
their  style  and  the  asyndeton  of  their  sentences.  But  in  the  case 
of  these  essays  the  same  difficulty  confronts  the  literary  reader 
which  has  been  pointed  out  in  reference  to  other  departments.  In 
the  form  in  which  our  Bibles  are  presented  to  us  the  separate 
essays  are  allowed  to  run  together  without  break,  and  the  titles  so 
essential  to  this  kind  of  writing  are  wholly  wanting.  I  have  endeav- 


302  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

oured  to  meet  this  difficulty  by  indicating  in  the  Appendix 1  to  this 
work  the  separate  essays,  and  suggesting  appropriate  titles.  And 
here,  as  elsewhere,  I  would  advise  the  reader  to  mark  such  divi- 
sions and  titles  in  his  Bible  and  Apocrypha,  before  he  attempts  to 
appreciate  the  literary  character  of  these  compositions. 

At  this  point  I  can  do  nothing  but  illustrate.     Of  the  shorter 
essays  a  good  specimen  is  that  of  Ecclesiasticus  on  Gossip. 

On  Gossip 

He  that  is  hasty  to  trust  is  lightminded;  and  he  that  sinneth  shall 
offend  against  his  own  soul.  He  that  maketh  merry  in  his  heart 
shall  be  condemned;  and  he  that  hateth  talk  hath  the  less  wicked- 
ness. Never  repeat  what  is  told  thee,  and  thou  shalt  fare  never  the 
worse.  Whether  it  be  of  friend  or  foe,  tell  it  not;  and  if  thou  canst 
without  sin,  reveal  not  the  matter;  for  he  hath  heard  thee  and 
observed  thee,  and  when  the  time  cometh  he  will  hate  thee.  Hast 
thou  heard  a  word?  let  it  die  with  thee :  be  of  good  courage,  it  will 
not  burst  thee.  A  fool  will  travail  in  pain  with  a  word,  as  a  woman 
in  labour  with  a  child.  As  an  arrow  that  sticketh  in  the  flesh  of  the 
thigh,  so  is  a  word  in  a  fool's  belly.  Reprove  a  friend;  it  may  be 
he  did  it  not;  and  if  he  did  it,  that  he  may  do  it  no  more.  Reprove 
thy  neighbour;  it  may  be  he  said  it  not;  and  if  he  hath  said  it,  that 
he  may  not  say  it  again.  Reprove  a  friend,  for  many  times  there  is 
slander :  and  trust  not  every  word.  There  is  one  that  slippeth,  and 
not  from  the  heart:  and  who  is  he  that  hath  not  sinned  with  his 
tongue?  Reprove  thy  neighbour  before  thou  threaten  him ;  and  give 
place  to  the  law  of  the  Most  High. 

This  essay  is  one  of  those  in  which  gnomic  verses  abound.  In 
the  next  they  are  rare,  and  the  whole  essay  strikes  a  higher  key. 

Prosperity  and  Adversity  are  from  the  Lord 

There  is  one  that  toileth,  and  laboureth,  and  maketh  haste,  and 
is  so  much  the  more  behind.  There  is  one  that  is  sluggish,  and 
hath  need  of  help,  lacking  in  strength,  and  that  aboundeth  in 
poverty;  and  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  looked  upon  him  for  good, 
and  he  set  him  up  from  his  low  estate,  and  lifted  up  his  head; 
and  many  marvelled  at  him.  Good  things  and  evil,  life  and  death, 

*  See  Ecclesiastes,  Ecclesiasticus,  Wisdom,  St.  James,  First  Epistle  of  St.  John, 
in  Appendix  I ;  or  the  Table  of  Wisdom  Literature  in  Appendix  II. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  303 

poverty  and  riches,  are  from  the  Lord.  The  gift  of  the  Lord  remain- 
eth  with  the  godly,  and  his  good  pleasure  shall  prosper  for  ever. 
There  is  that  waxeth  rich  by  his  wariness  and  pinching,  and  this  is 
the  portion  of  his  reward :  when  he  saith,  I  have  found  rest,  and 
now  will  I  eat  of  my  goods;  yet  he  knoweth  not  what  time  shall 
pass,  and  he  shall  leave  them  to  others,  and  die.  Be  stedfast  in  thy 
covenant,  and  be  conversant  therein,  and  wax  old  in  thy  work.  Mar- 
vel not  at  the  works  of  a  sinner;  but  trust  the  Lord,  and  abide  in 
thy  labour :  for  it  is  an  easy  thing  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  swiftly  on 
the  sudden  to  make  a  poor  man  rich.  The  blessing  of  the  Lord  is  in 
the  reward  of  the  godly;  and  in  an  hour  that  cometh  swiftly  he  mak- 
eth  his  blessing  to  flourish.  Say  not,  what  use  is  there  of  me  ?  and 
what  from  henceforth  shall  my  good  things  be?  Say  not,  I  have 
sufficient,  and  from  henceforth  what  harm  shall  happen  unto  me? 
In  the  day  of  good  things  there  is  a  forgetfulness  of  evil  things;  and 
in  the  day  of  evil  things  a  man  will  not  remember  things  that  are 
good.  For  it  is  an  easy  thing  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  to  reward  a 
man  in  the  day  of  death  according  to  his  ways.  The  affliction  of  an 
hour  causeth  forgetfulness  of  delight;  and  in  the  last  end  of  a  man 
is  the  revelation  of  his  deeds.  Call  no  man  blessed  before  his  death; 
and  a  man  shall  be  known  in  his  children. 

I  follow  this  with  one  of  the  longer  essays,  one  marked  also  by 
a  greater  variety  of  style. 

On  Counsel  and  Counsellors 

Every  counsellor  extolleth  counsel ;  but  there  is  that  counselleth 
for  himself.  Let  thy  soul  beware  of  a  counsellor,  and  know  thou  be- 
fore what  is  his  interest  (for  he  will  counsel  for  himself) ;  lest  he 
cast  the  lot  upon  thee,  and  say  unto  thee,  Thy  way  is  good :  and  he 
will  stand  over  against  thee,  to  see  what  shall  befall  thee.  Take 
not  counsel  with  one  that  looketh  askance  at  thee;  and  hide  thy 
counsel  from  such  as  are  jealous  of  thee.  Take  not  counsel  with  a 
woman  about  her  rival;  neither  with  a  coward  about  war;  nor  with 
a  merchant  about  exchange;  nor  with  a  buyer  about  selling;  nor 
with  an  envious  man  about  thankfulness;  nor  with  an  unmerciful 
man  about  kindliness;  nor  with  a  sluggard  about  any  kind  of  work; 
nor  with  a  hireling  in  thy  house  about  finishing  his  work;  nor  with 
an  idle  servant  about  much  business :  give  not  heed  to  these  in  any 
matter  of  counsel.  But  rather  be  continually  with  a  godly  man, 
whom  thou  shall  have  known  to  be  a  keeper  of  the  commandments, 


304  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

who  in  his  soul  is  as  thine  own  soul,  and  who  will  grieve  with  thee, 
if  thou  shall  miscarry.  And  make  the  counsel  of  thy  heart  to  stand; 
for  there  is  none  more  faithful  unto  thee  than  it.  For  a  man's  soul 
is  sometime  wont  to  bring  him  tidings,  more  than  seven  watchmen 
that  sit  on  high  on  a  watch-tower.  And  above  all  this  entreat  the 
Most  High,  that  he  may  direct  thy  way  in  truth.  Let  reason  be  the 
beginning  of  every  work,  and  let  counsel  go  before  every  action. 

As  a  token  of  the  changing  of  the  heart,  four  manner  of  things  do 
rise  up,  good  and  evil,  life  and  death;  and  that  which  ruleth  over 
them  continually  is  the  tongue.  There  is  one  that  is  shrewd  and  the 
instructor  of  many,  and  yet  is  unprofitable  to  his  own  soul.  There 
is  one  that  is* subtle  in  words,  and  is  hated;  he  shall  be  destitute  of 
all  food:  for  grace  was  not  given  him  from  the  Lord;  because  he  is 
deprived  of  all  wisdom.  There  is  one  that  is  wise  to  his  own  soul; 
and  the  fruits  of  his  understanding  are  trustworthy  in  the  mouth.  A 
wise  man  will  instruct  his  own  people;  and  the  fruits  of  his  under- 
standing are  trustworthy.  A  wise  man  shall  be  filled  with  blessing; 
and  all  they  that  see  him  shall  call  him  happy.  The  life  of  man  is 
numbered  by  days;  and  the  days  of  Israel  are  innumerable :  the  wise 
man  shall  inherit  confidence  among  his  people,  and  his  name  shall 
live  for  ever. 

The  second  paragraph  of  this  essay  has  an  obscurity  which  is  rare 
in  Wisdom  literature.  The  line  of  thought  seems  to  be  as  follows. 
Man's  whole  experience  for  good  or  evil  depends  upon  the  direc- 
tion of  his  purposes;  and  a  force  continually  influencing  these 
purposes  is  the  speech  of  his  fellowmen.  Hence  the  importance 
of  marking  the  character  of  those  who  counsel.  One  type  has  the 
power  of  imparting  instruction,  but  no  morale  to  make  the  in- 
struction worth  having :  for  all  his  wisdom  he  is  unprofitable  to 
his  own  soul.  One  is  false  in  speech,  and  so  wholly  hateful.  A 
third  has  his  wisdom  bounded  by  selfishness  ;  but  what  he  is  willing 
to  speak  will  be  worth  marking.  The  truly  wise  will  have  not  only 
wisdom  but  also  the  desire  to  impart  it  to  his  fellow-countrymen ; 
his  blessedness  will  be  as  much  beyond  that  of  the  other  as  a 
nation  is  wider  and  more  lasting  than  an  individual. 

As  a  final  example,  I  cite  an  essay  of  St.  James,  to  show  how  wide- 
reaching  a  treatment  of  how  profound  a  subject  can  be  compressed 
within  the  narrow  limits  of  this  fragmentary  form  of  composition. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  305 

On  the  Sources  of  the  Evil  and  the  Good  in  Man 

Blessed  is  the  man  that  endureth  temptation :  for  when  he  hath 
been  approved,  he  shall  receive  the  crown  of  life,  which  the  Lord 
promised  to  them  that  love  him.  Let  no  man  say  when  he  is 
tempted,  I  am  tempted  of  God :  for  God  cannot  be  tempted  with 
evil,  and  he  himself  tempteth  no  man :  but  each  man  is  tempted, 
when  he  is  drawn  away  by  his  own  lust,  and  enticed.  Then  the 
lust  when  it  hath  conceived,  beareth  sin;  and  the  sin,  when  it  is 
full-grown,  bringeth  forth  death.  Be  not  deceived,  my  beloved 
brethren. 

Every  good  gift  and  every  perfect  boon  is  from  above,  coming 
down  from  the  Father  of  lights,  with  whom  can  be  no  variation, 
neither  shadow  that  is  cast  by  turning.  Of  his  own  will  he  brought 
us  forth  by  the  word  of  truth,  that  we  should  be  a  kind  of  first-fruits 
of  his  creatures.  Know  ye  this,  my  beloved  brethren;  but  let  every 
man  be  swift  to  hear,  slow  to  speak ;  slow  to  wrath,  —  for  the  wrath 
of  man  worketh  not  the  righteousness  of  God.  Wherefore  putting 
away  all  filthiness  and  overflowing  of  wickedness,  receive  with  meek- 
ness the  inborn  word,  which  is  able  to  save  your  souls.  But  be  ye 
doers  of  the  word,  and  not  hearers  only,  deluding  your  own  selves. 
For  if  any  one  is  a  hearer  of  the  word,  and  not  a  doer,  he  is  like  unto 
a  man  beholding  his  natural  face  in  a  mirror :  for  he  beholdeth  him- 
self, and  goeth  away,  and  straightway  forgetteth  what  manner  of  man 
he  was.  But  he  that  looketh  into  the  perfect  law,  the  law  of  liberty, 
and  so  continueth,  being  not  a  hearer  that  forgetteth,  but  a  doer  that 
worketh,  this  man  shall  be  blessed  in  his  doing.  If  any  man  thinketh 
himself  to  be  religious,  while  he  bridleth  not  his  tongue  but  deceiveth 
his  heart,  this  man's  religion  is  vain.  Pure  religion  and  undefiled 
before  our  God  and  Father  is  this,  to  visit  the  fatherless  and  widows 
„  in  their  affliction,  and  to  keep  himself  unspotted  from  the  world. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  elsewhere  so  complete  and  harmo- 
nious a  theory  stated  in  so  brief  a  space.     The  question  is  of  the 
origin  of  the  Evil  and  Good  within  us.    The  author  strikes  the 
keynote  of  Temptation  —  the  struggle  in  us  between   Evil  and 
Good.    Echoing  a  saying  of  Ecclesiasticus,  he  warns    Ecclw  ^ 
us  against  the  delusion  that  temptation  to  evil  could 
come  from  God.     The  true  origin  of  evil  he  illustrates  by  the  im- 
age of  childbirth :  it  is  the  fruit  of  a  union  between  the  individual 


306  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

man —  that  is,  man's  Will1 — and  his  Lust ;  only  when  these  have 
consented  together  is  evil  born,  and  such  a  union  is  not  a  marriage, 
but  a  seduction.  The  germ  of  evil  thus  accounted  for,  the  Apostle 
proceeds  to  its  further  development ;  and  this  he  explains  by  the 
same  image  of  childbirth,  carried  on  to  a  second  generation. 
Turning,  then,  to  the  question  of  Good,  St.  James  continues  the 
imagery  of  childbirth ;  a  union  is  hinted  at  between  "  The  Will  of 
God  "  and  "  The  Word  of  Truth,"  as  a  result  of  which  there  exists 
in  each  individual  an  "  inborn  word  "  as  the  germ  of  Good.  As 
with  Evil,  so  here  the  writer  proceeds  to  the  development  of  such 
a  germ,  and  this  occupies  the  larger  part  of  the  essay.  The 
imagery  changes  to  that  of  listening  :  laying  aside  obstacles  such 
as  wrath,  malice,  filthiness,  we  are  with  patience  and  acuteness  of 
attention,  to  listen  for  the  word  within  us.  But  one  more  condi- 
tion is  essential :  that  the  truth  in  proportion  as  it  is  caught  must 
be  carried  into  action.  To  enforce  this  principle,  the  remarkable 
illustration  of  a  mirror  is  used  :  truth  that  is  seen  without  being 
acted  upon  is  compared  to  a  reflection  in  a  glass  that  vanishes  as 
soon  as  the  face  is  turned  away.  But  how  is  this  image  to  be 
carried  on  to  express  the  man  who  lives  the  truth  he  sees?  Such 
a  man  will  behold  his  action  reflected  in  the  mirror  of  the  law : 
only,  in  accordance  with  one  of  the  main  ideas  of  his  epistle, 
St.  James  puts  it,  not  as  the  mirror  of  the  law,  but  as  the  mirror 
of  Christian  liberty,  which  is  the  highest  form  of  law.  With  prac- 
tical examples  the  essay  concludes. 

I  now  turn  back  to  the  verse  side  of  Wisdom  literature.     Here 
we  find  a  class  of  compositions,  which,  like  the  Essay,  are  made 

up  of  miscellaneous  thoughts  gathered  around  a 
The  Sonnet  ° 

common  theme.     Their  poetic  form  is  evidenced 

in  the  fact  that,  not  only  are  they  composed  of  rhythmic  lines,  but 
also  their  parts  are  bound  together  by  high  parallelism  —  the 
parallelism,  that  is,  which  links  not  single  verses  only  but  masses 

1  The  wording  of  the  corresponding  section  in  the  second  paragraph  (verse  id 
of  St.  James  i)  justifies  this  interpretation. 


FORMS   OF  WISDOM  LITERATURE  307 

of  lines,  or  again,  not  adjacent  lines,  but  portions  of  a  composition 
widely  separated.  This  characteristic  can  be  best  conveyed  by 
illustration. 

On  Evil  Company 

My  son,  if  sinners  entice  thee, 
Consent  thou  not. 

If  they  say,  "  Come  with  us, 

Let  us  lay  wait  for  blood, 

Let  us  lurk  privily  for  the  innocent  without  cause; 

Let  us  swallow  them  up  alive  as  Sheol, 

And  whole,  as  those  that  go  down  into  the  pit ; 

We  shall  find  all  precious  substance, 

We  shall  fill  our  houses  with  spoil; 

Thou  shall  cast  thy  lot  among  us; 

We  will  all  have  one  purse :  " 

My  son,  walk  not  thou  in  the  way  with  them; 

Refrain  thy  foot  from  their  path : 

For  their  feet  run  to  evil, 

And  they  make  haste  to  shed  blood. 

For  in  vain  is  the  net  spread, 

In  the  eyes  of  any  bird ; 

And  these  lay  wait  for  their  own  blood, 

They  lurk  privily  for  their  own  lives. 

So  are  the  ways  of  every  one  that  is  greedy  of  gain; 

It  taketh  away  the  life  of  the  owners  thereof. 

The  eye  catches  that  the  whole  of  this  poem,  after  the  opening 
couplet,  falls  into  two  blocks  of  lines ;  upon  examination  it  will  be 
found  that  the  block  of  lines  indented  to  the  left  are  all  of  them 
expansions  of  the  first  line  of  the  opening  couplet,  "  My  son,  if 
sinners  entice  thee,"  and  the  block  of  lines  indented  to  the  right 
are  expansions  of  the  second  line  of  the  couplet,  "  Consent  thou 
not."  Thus  it  appears  that  precisely  the  same  parallelism  which 
unites  the  two  opening  lines  into  a  couplet  of  verse  is  found  to  bind 
the  divisions  of  the  poem  itself  into  a  whole.  This  is  a  simple 
instance  of  the  higher  parallelism. 

What  is  the  proper  name  for  this  class  of  compositions?    To 


308 

me  it  appears  that  their  position  in  relation  to  universal  literature 
is  expressed  by  calling  them  '  Sonnets.'  No  doubt  they  present 

one   palpable   difference   from  the  poems  we  are 
Difference  be- 
tween Hebrew       accustomed  to  designate  by  that  name  :  they  are 

and  English  no^  \fae  Italian  and  English  sonnets,  constructed  of 
Sonnets  ...  ._..,..... 

exactly  fourteen  lines  each.     But  is  this  limitation 

to  fourteen  lines  the  essential  of  the  Sonnet,  or  is  it  only  a  matter 
of  prescriptive  usage?  I  would  contend  that  if  the  Sonnet  is  to 
rank  as  a  leading  poetic  type  in  universal  literature  its  principle 
must  be  deeper.  The  true  distinction  of  the  Sonnet,  like  that  of 
the  Fugue  in  music,  is  that  it  reverses  the  usual  order  of  things, 
and  presents  us  with  matter  adapting  itself  to  external  form.  The 
form  that  obtains  in  our  modern  poetry  is  the  arrangement  in 
fourteen  lines ;  accordingly,  the  thought  of  our  sonnets  must  be 
sufficient  to  fill  out  the  fourteen  lines,  it  must  not  be  too  wide  to 
be  compressed  into  that  space  ;  further  (in  the  Italian  sonnet)  the 
logical  connection  of  the  thoughts  must  be  such  as  will  fit  in  with 
the  division  of  the  fourteen  lines  into  a  set  of  eight  and  a  set  of 
six.  Now  it  is  impossible  to  read  the  Biblical  poems  under  dis- 
cussion without  feeling  that  here  too  we  have  thought  adapting 
itself  to  form ;  not,  of  course,  to  any  particular  number  of  lines, 
but  to  elaboration  of  parallelism  of  some  kind.  To  generalise,  we 
may  say  that  wherever  thought  runs  into  poetic  moulds  we  have 
the  spirit  of  the  Sonnet ;  it  belongs  to  the  individuality  of  different 
literatures  to  decide  whether  only  one  mould  shall  be  used,  or 
more  than  one.  Already  we  have  seen  a  difference  of  type  be- 
tween the  strict  Italian  sonnet  with  its  division  into  eight  and  six, 
and  the  English  sonnets  which  may  observe  or  ignore  that  division. 
Hebrew  poetry  multiplies  that  difference  by  allowing  free  variety 
of  forms,  yet  still  leaving  in  its  sonnets  the  literary  impression  of 
matter  fitting  itself  to  form. 

These  Wisdom  poems  fall  into  two  distinct  types.    The  first  may 

be  called  the  Fixed  or  Number  Sonnet :  it  is  fixed. 
The  Fixed  Sonnet  .     ,  ,  ... 

not  to  one  particular  number  of  lines,  but  to  the 

working  out  of  a  number  form  indicated  in  the  opening  verses. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  309 

Little  and  Wise 

There  be  four  things  which  are  little  upon  the  earth, 

But  they  are  exceeding  wise : 
The  ants  are  a  people  not  strong, 

Yet  they  provide  their  meat  in  the  summer; 
The  conies  are  but  a  feeble  folk, 

Yet  make  they  their  houses  in  the  rocks; 
The  locusts  have  no  king, 

Yet  go  they  forth  all  of  them  by  bands; 
The  lizard  thou  canst  seize  with  thy  hands, 

Yet  is  she  in  kings'  palaces. 


What  Wisdom  loves  and  hates 

In  three  things  I  was  beautified, 

And  stood  up  beautiful  before  the  Lord  and  men : 

The  concord  of  brethren, 
And  friendship  of  neighbours, 

And  a  woman  and  her  husband  that  walk  together  in  agree- 
ment. 

But  three  sorts  of  men  my  soul  hateth, 
And  I  am  greatly  offended  at  their  life : 

A  poor  man  that  is  haughty, 
A  rich  man  that  is  a  liar, 
And  an  old  man  that  is  an  adulterer  lacking  understanding. 

The  number  form  is  usually  reached  by  a  progression. 

The  Unsatisfied 

The  horseleach  hath  two  daughters,  called  Give,  Give; 
There  are  three  things  that  are  never  satisfied, 

Yea,  four  that  say  not,  Enough : 
The  grave; 

And  the  barren  womb; 
The  earth  that  is  not  satisfied  with  water; 
And  the  fire  that  saith  not,  Enough. 


310  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

Wonders 

There  be  three  things  which  are  too  wonderful  for  me, 
Yea,  four  which  I  know  not : 

The  way  of  an  eagle  in  the  air; 

The  way  of  a  serpent  upon  a  rock ; 

The  way  of  a  ship  in  the  midst  of  the  sea; 
And  the  way  of  a  man  with  a  maid. 

V 

The  Golden  Mean 

Two  things  have  I  asked  of  thee; 
Deny  me  not  three l  before  I  die : 
Remove  far  from  me  vanity  and  lies; 
Give  me  neither  poverty  nor  riches; 

Feed  me  with  the  food  that  is  needful  for  me : 
Lest  I  be  full,  and  deny  thee,  and  say,  Who  is  the  LORD? 
Or  lest  I  be  poor  and  steal, 
And  use  profanely  the  name  of  my  God. 

V 

The  Love  of  the  Lord 

There  be  nine  things  that  I  have  thought  of, 

And  in  mine  heart  counted  happy; 

And  the  tenth  I  will  utter  with  my  tongue : 

A  man  that  hath  joy  of  his  children; 

A  man  that  liveth  and  looketh  upon  the  fall  of  his  enemi    ; 
Happy  is  he  that  dwelleth  with  a  wife  of  understanding; 
And  he  that  hath  not  slipped  with  his  tongue; 

And  he  that  hath  not  served  a  man  that  is  unworthy  of  him; 

Happy  is  he  that  hath  found  prudence; 
And  he  that  discourseth  in  the  ears  of  them  that  listen; 
How  great  is  he  that  hath  found  Wisdom ! 

Yet  is  there  none  above  him  that  feareth  the  Lord. 

The  Love  2  of  the  Lord  passeth  all  things : 

He  that  holdeth  it,  to  whom  shall  he  be  likened? 

iThis  has  obviously  slipped  out  of  the  line  [A.  V.  and  R.  V.  of  Proverbs  xxx.  7 
read  'them'],  otherwise  the  sonnet  would  name  '  two '  things  and  enumerate '  three.' 

2  This  is  the  reading  of  A.  V.  to  Ecclus.  xxv.  n  :  the  R.  V.,  no  doubt  on  better 
textual  authority,  reads  '  fear,'  which  destroys  the  form  of  the  Sonnet.  The  emen- 
dation comes  under  the  principle  laid  down  above,  page  59,  note. 


FORMS   OF   WISDOM  LITERATURE  311 

The  other  type  of  Sonnet  is  free  to  adopt  high  parallelism  of 
any  kind.     A  simple  example  was  cited  above,  in  which  the  lines 

fell  into  two  blocks,  one  block  of  lines  parallel  with 

The  Free  Sonnet 
the  first,  the  other  of  lines  parallel  with  the  second 

line  of  the  couplet  text.  In  the  Sonnet  that  follows  the  lines 
seem  to  alternate  irregularly :  but  upon  examination  it  will  appear 
that  all  on  the  left  deal  with  the  commandment,  and  those  on  the 
right  with  its  reward. 

The  Commandment  and  its  Reward 

My  son,  forget  not  my  law; 

But  let  thine  heart  keep  my  commandments : 

For  length  of  days,  and  years  of  life, 

And  peace,  shall  they  add  to  thee. 
Let  not  mercy  and  truth  forsake  thee; 
Bind  them  about  thy  neck : 
Write  them  upon  the  table  of  thine  heart : 

So  shalt  thou  find  favour  and  good  understanding 

In  the  sight  of  God  and  man. 
Trust  in  the  LORD  with  all  thine  heart, 
And  lean  not  upon  thine  own  understanding : 
In  all  thy  ways  acknowledge  him, 

And  he  shall  direct  thy  paths. 
Be  not  wise  in  thine  own  eyes : 
Fear  the  LORD  and  depart  from  evil : 

It  shall  be  health  to  thy  navel. 

And  marrow  to  thy  bones. 
Honour  the  LORD  with  thy  substance, 
And  with  the  first  fruits  of  all  thine  increase : 

So  shall  thy  barns  be  filled  with  plenty, 

And  thy  fats  shall  overflow  with  new  wine. 

More  elaborate  in  structure  is  the  Sonnet  on  Intoxication.  It 
has  the  general  form  of  an  enigma :  six  short  lines  contain  six 
questions,  the  common  answer  to  which  makes  a  single  couplet  of 
longer  lines.  Then  these  two  parts  are  doubled,  and  their  order 
reversed  :  the  couplet  is  expanded  into  a  quatrain,  after  which  the 
ideas  of  the  six  opening  lines  are  emphasised  in  six  couplets. 


312  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

On  Intoxication 

Who  hath  woe? 

Who  hath  sorrow? 

Who  hath  contentions? 

Who  hath  complaining? 

Who  hath  wounds  without  cause? 

Who  hath  redness  of  eyes? 
They  that  tarry  long  at  the  wine; 
They  that  go  to  seek  out  mixed  wine. 

Look  not  thou  upon  the  wine 
When  it  is  red, 

When  it  giveth  its  colour  in  the  cup, 
When  it  goeth  down  smoothly : 

At  the  last  it  biteth  like  a  serpent, 

And  stingeth  like  an  adder. 
Thine  eyes  shall  behold  strange  things, 

And  thine  heart  shall  utter  froward  things. 
Yea,  thou  shalt  be  as  he  that  lieth  down  in  the  midst  of  the  sea, 

Or  as  he  that  lieth  upon  the  top  of  a  mast. 
"  They  have  stricken  me, 
And  I  was  not  hurt; 
They  have  beaten  me, 
And  I  felt  it  not; 
When  shall  I  awake? 

I  will  seek  it  yet  again." 

This  single  sonnet  has  illustrated  two  leading  devices  of  sonnet 
form  —  reversing  the  order  of  parts,  and  augmenting.  I  add 
two  more  poems,  illustrating  each  of  these  devices  respectively, 
and  further  interesting  from  their  thought  and  tone. 

On  the  Unsearchableness  of  God 

I  have  wearied  myself,  O  God, 

I  have  wearied  myself,  O  God, 

And  am  consumed : 
For  I  am  more  brutish  than  any  man, 
And  have  not  the  understanding  of  a  man : 
And  I  have  not  learned  wisdom, 
Neither  have  I  the  knowledge  of  the  Holy  One. 


FORMS  OF  WISDOM  LITERATURE  313 

Who  hath  ascended  up  into  heaven,  and  descended? 
Who  hath  gathered  the  wind  in  his  fists? 
Who  hath  bound  the  waters  in  his  garment? 
Who  hath  established  all  the  ends  of  the  earth? 

What  is  his  name, 

And  what  is  his  son's  name, 

If  thou  knowest  ? 

If  we  may  intrude  upon  the  spiritual  beauty  of  this  poem  by 
technical  analysis,  it  is  to  point  out  how  three  short  lines  grow 
into  four  long,  and  then,  by  reverse  process,  four  long  sink  into 
three  short.  In  the  example  that  follows  a  quatrain  of  appre- 
hension answered  by  a  couplet1  of  prayer  augments  into  a  double 
quatrain  of  apprehension  answered  by  a  double  couplet  of  prayer. 
Such  structural  augmenting  means  spiritual  intensification. 

Watchfulness  of  Lips  and  Heart 

Who  shall  set  a  watch  over  my  mouth, 
And  a  seal  of  shrewdness  upon  my  lips, 
That  I  fall  not  from  it, 
And  that  my  tongue  destroy  me  not? 

O  Lord,  Father  and  master  of  my  life, 
Abandon  me  not  to  their  counsel : 
Suffer  me  not  to  fall  by  them. 

Who  will  set  scourges  over  my  thought, 

And  a  discipline  of  wisdom  over  my  heart; 
That  they  spare  me  not  for  mine  ignorances, 

And  my  heart  pass  not  by  their  sins : 
That  my  ignorances  be  not  multiplied, 

And  my  sins  abound  not; 
And  I  shall  fall  before  mine  adversaries, 

And  mine  enemy  rejoice  over  me? 

O  Lord,  Father  and  God  of  my  life, 
Give  me  not  a  proud  look, 

And  turn  away  concupiscence  from  me. 
Let  not  greediness  and  chambering  overtake  me, 
And  give  me  not  over  to  a  shameless  mind. 

*  The  line  of  invocation  is  not  reckoned. 


314  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR   WISDOM 

Before  passing  away  from  this  class  of  composition,  we  may 

Development  of       DOte  that>  aS  WC  SaW  in  the  CaSC  °f  the  Essay>  so 
Sonnets  out  of       the  development  of  the  Sonnet  out  of  the  Proverb 

can  be  illustrated  in  all  its  parts.  One  example  is 
singularly  complete.  We  are  able  to  go  back  to  an  original  germ 
preserved  in  another  poem. 

For  the  drunkard  and  the  glutton  shall  come  to  poverty, 
And  drowsiness  shall  clothe  a  man  with  rags. 

The  thought  of  this  unit  proverb,  namely,  the  second  line  which 
connects  together  drowsiness  and  rags,  has  grown  into  an  epigram. 

Epigram  on  the  Sluggard 

"  Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber, 
A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep  " : 

So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robber; 

And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 

We  may  judge  that  this  epigram  belonged  to  the  floating  literature 
of  proverbs,  from  the  fact  of  its  appearing  in  two  sonnets. 

Sonnet  on  the  Field  of  the  Slothful 

I  went  by  the  field  of  the  slothful, 

And  by  the  vineyard  of  the  man  void  of  understanding; 
And,  lo,  it  was  all  grown  over  with  thorns, 
The  face  thereof  was  covered  with  nettles, 
And  the  stone  wall  thereof  was  broken  down. 

Then  I  beheld, 

And  considered  well : 

I  saw, 

And  received  instruction. 

"  Yet  a  little  sleep, 

A  little  slumber, 

A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep  " : 
So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robtier; 
And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 


FORMS  OF  WISDOM  LITERATURE  315 

Sonnet  on  the  Sluggard 

Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard; 
Consider  her  ways,  and  be  wise : 

Which  having  no  chief, 

Overseer, 

Or  ruler, 

Provideth  her  meat  in  the  summer, 
And  gathereth  her  food  in  the  harvest. 

How  long  wilt  thou  sleep,  O  sluggard? 
When  wilt  thou  arise  out  of  thy  sleep? 

"  Yet  a  little  sleep, 

A  little  slumber, 

A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep  " : 
So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robber, 
And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 

It  remains  to  note,  in  conclusion,  that  Wisdom  literature,  on 
both  its  sides  of  verse  and  prose,  is  attracted  by  other  literary 
departments,  and  compound  forms  arise.  Prose  Philosophy  feels 
the  attraction  of  Rhetoric,  and  we  get  as  a  result  the  Rhetoric 
Encomium.  The  name  conveys  the  character  of 
the  composition ;  a  writer  sets  himself  formally  to 
the  task  of  praising  Wisdom,  or  the  works  of  the 
Lord,  and  the  style  has  rhetorical  flow  rather  than  gnomic  senten- 
tiousness.  Indeed,  these  compositions  are  usually  considered 
poems.  But  I  have  pointed  out  more  than  once,  in  connection 
with  the  general  discussion  of  the  subject,  that  parallelism  by  itself 
is  an  insufficient  criterion  of  verse  and  prose,  belonging  as  it  does 
to  Rhetoric  equally  with  Hebrew  verse.  And  when  the  matter  of 
these  encomia  is  considered,  it  seems  to  me  nearer  to  the  matter 
of  prose  essays  than  to  that  of  sonnets.  Even  as  regards  structure, 
the  parallelism  is  sometimes  broken  by  what  will  make  excellent 
prose,  but  feeble  verse. 

Good  things  are  created  from  the  beginning  for  the  good :  so  are 
evil  things  for  sinners.     The  chief  of  all  things    ECCIUS> 
necessary  for  the  life  of  man  are  water,  and  lire,    as 


316  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR  WISDOM 

and  iron,  and  salt,  and  flour  of  wheat,  and  honey,  and  milk, 
the  blood  of  the  grape,  and  oil,  and  clothing.  All  these  things  are 
for  good  to  the  godly;  so  to  the  sinners  they  shall  be  turned  into 
evil. 

If  this  enumeration  of  necessary  things  be  placed  side  by  side 
with  a  not  dissimilar  enumeration  taken  from  a  lyric  ode,  the 
rhythmic  gulf  which  separates  the  two  will  be  apparent. 

Deut.  zzzii.        And  he  made  him  to  suck  honey  out  of  the  rock, 
*3  And  oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock; 

Butter  of  kine,  and  milk  of  sheep,  with  fat  of  lambs, 

And  rams  of  the  breed  of  Bashan,  and  goats, 
With  the  fat  of  kidneys  of  wheat; 

And  of  the  blood  of  the  grape  thou  drankest  wine. 

In  any  case,  the  Rhetoric  Encomium  makes  one  more  point  at 
which  Hebrew  verse  and  prose  approach  one  another. 

On  the  other  hand,  Wisdom  is  attracted  by  Drama,  and  conveys 
its  thoughts  in  the  form  of  Dramatic  Monologues.  Wisdom  is 
personified :  she  is  made  to  build  her  house,  to 
spread  her  table,  to  speak  in  warning  or  invitation. 
The  most  elaborate  poem  of  this  type  in  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  prepares  the  way  for  the  monologue  itself  by  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  '  Strange  Woman,'  laying  her  snares,  and  speaking 
her  wiles,  till  the  simple  victim  follows,  like  an  ox  going  to  the 
slaughter,  to  the  house  that  is  the  way  to  the  Abyss.  Immediately, 
without  a  word  of  connection,  comes  the  contrast. 

Doth  not  Wisdom  cry, 
And  Understanding  put  forth  her  voice? 
In  the  top  of  high  places  by  the  way, 
Where  the  paths  meet, 

She  standeth; 

Beside  the  gates,  at  the  entry  of  the  city, 
At  the  coming  in  at  the  doors, 

She  crieth  aloud. 


FORMS  OF  WISDOM  LITERATURE  317 

Wisdom  tells  of  her  excellent  things :  of  her  instruction  that  is 
worth  more  than  silver,  her  knowledge  and  subtlety  more  valuable 
than  rubies  and  gold. 

Counsel  is  mine, 

And  sound  knowledge; 
I  am  understanding, 
I  have  might. 

By  me  kings  reign; 

And  princes  decree  justice. 

By  me  princes  rule, 

And  nobles,  even  all  the  judges  of  the  earth. 

The  climax  comes  with  creative  wisdom.  The  scientific  state- 
ment of  the  thought  would  be  that  the  structure  of  the  universe 
is  such  as  to  suggest  design  in  its  Author :  but  here  the  design 
itself  is  personified,  and  claims  to  have  been  with  the  Creator 
from  the  first. 

When  there  were  no  depths  I  was  brought  forth; 
When  there  were  no  fountains  abounding  with  water. 

Before  the  mountains  were  settled, 

Before  the  hills  was  I  brought  forth : 
While  as  yet  he  had  not  made  the  earth^ 
Nor  the  fields, 
Nor  the  beginning  of  the  dust  of  the  world. 

When  he  established  the  heavens,  I  was  there : 

When  he  set  a  circle  upon  the  face  of  the  deep : 

When  he  made  firm  the  skies  above : 

When  the  fountains  of  the  deep  became  strong : 

When  he  gave  to  the  sea  its  bound. 

That  the  waters  should  not  transgress  his  commandment : 

When  he  marked  out  the  foundations  of  the  earth : 
Then  I  was  by  him, 
As  a  master  workman : 
And  I  was  daily  his  delight, 
Sporting  always  before  him; 
Sporting  in  his  habitable  earth. 


318  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR  WISDOM 

In  personifications  like  this  the  form  of  Drama  is  borrowed  to 
clothe  the  meditations  of  the  wise.  But  there  are  dramatic 
monologues  which  go  further  than  personification,  and  put  certain 
phases  of  philosophic  reflection  into  the  mouth  of  historical  or 
imaginary  personages.  These,  however,  will  be  best  dealt  with 
in  the  chapters  describing  the  Books  of  Wisdom  in  which  they 
are  found. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE    SACRED    BOOKS    OF    WISDOM 

THE  various  literary  forms  in  which  the  philosophical  thought  of 
Scripture  may  be  cast  have  been  reviewed  :  it  remains  to  consider 
the  Books  of  Wisdom  as  they  stand. 

The  first  of  these  is  entitled  The  Proverbs.  In  technical  form 
it  may  be  described  as  a  Miscellany  in  Five  Books  :  the  five-fold 
The  Proverbs-  a  division  °f  this  work  (and  of  Ecclesiasticus)  being 
miscellany  in  as  well  marked  as  in  the  Book  of  Psalms.  The  first 
five  books  book  is  made  up  of  m-ne  chapters.  This  is  a  por- 

tion of  Scripture  dear  to  every  reader :  for  literary  charm  no  part 
of  the  Bible  is  more  impressive.  I  must,  however,  express  dissent 
from  the  received  view  that  the  nine  chapters  make  one  continuous 
poem.  The  view  seems  to  rest  upon  such  considerations  as  these  : 
the  uniqueness  in .  character  of  this  section ;  the 
way  in  which  it  serves  as  prologue  to  what  follows  ; 
the  fact  of  its  being  cast  in  the  form  of  a  father's 
counsels  to  a  son ;  while  some  have  claimed  to  trace  in  it  a  regu- 
lar progression  of  thought.  The  unique  character  of  these  chap- 
ters is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  preponderance  in  them  of  one 
type  of  poem  :  out  of  twenty-two  free  sonnets  and  dramatic  mono- 
logues eighteen  are  to  be  found  in  this  section  of  Proverbs,  and 
only  four  outside  it.1  Again  :  the  chapters  cannot  be  called  a  pro- 
logue in  the  sense  of  an  introduction  making  reference  to  the  rest 
of  the  work  ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  quite  natural  for  the 

1  Throughout  the  chapter  compare  Proverbs,  etc.,  in  the  Literary  Index  (Ap- 
pendix I). 


320  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR  WISDOM 

editor  of  the  collection  to  place  first  poems  treating  Wisdom  as  a 
whole,  and  after  these  the  proverbs  that  deal  with  more  particular 
themes.  As  to  the  formula  '  My  Son,'  it  may  be  remarked  that  in 
considerable  portions  of  the  nine  chapters  it  is  absent,1  portions 
apparently  containing  independent  poems,  one  of  which  is  ad- 
dressed to  a  sluggard ;  where  such  a  formula  does  occur  it  varies 
between  '  My  Son  '  and  '  My  Sons,'  which  suggests  its  general  char- 
acter. When  it  is  further  seen  that  elsewhere  the  formula  is  found, 
rarely  in  unit  proverbs,  but  commonly  in  the  longer  compositions  of 
this  kind,2  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  understanding  why  it  should 
appear  so  often  in  this  part  of  the  book  which  is  made  up  of  long 
poems.  In  any  case,  the  recurrence  of  the  expression  '  My  Son  ' 
is  no  more  an  evidence  of  connectedness,  than  would  the  recur- 
rence from  a  modern  pulpit  Sunday  after  Sunday  of  the  expression 
'  My  Brethren '  prove  that  the  preacher's  successive  sermons  made 
a  unity.  The  supposed  progression  of  thought  is  rejected  by  mariy 
of  those  who  accept  the  unity  of  the  chapters ;  it  can  be  traced 
only  by  supposing  passages  to  be  interpolations  that  do  not  fit  in 
with  it.  But  the  idea  must  be  pronounced  impossible,  if  for  no 
other  reason,  on  the  ground  of  repetitions  and  redundancies. 
That  the  theme  of  Wisdom  and  the  Strange  Woman,  after  being 
brought  to  a  magnificent  climax  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  chap- 
ters, should  be  treated  again  in  brief  studies  in  the  ninth  chapter, 
is  entirely  inconsistent  with  a  continuous  poem,  though  natural 
enough  in  that  which  is  a  collection  of  similar  compositions. 

This  first  section  of  Proverbs  then,  like  the  other  sections,  is 
miscellaneous  in  character.  It  is  a  series  of  poems  that  would 
be  fairly  described  by  the  title,  '  Sonnets  on  Wisdom.'  In  some 3 
the  name  does  not  occur,  but  Wisdom  is  set  off  by  kindred  or  by 
contrasting  ideas.  One  sonnet  exhibits  the  company  of  the  evil 

1  i.  20-33 ;  vi.  6-n,  12-19 !  ix-  I~6>  7-9.  10-12,  13-18. 

3  In  unit  proverbs  I  have  only  observed  it  once  {Prov.  xxvii.  u).  It  occurs  in 
epigrams  (Prov.  xxiii.  15;  xxiv.  13;  Ecclus.  vii.  3),  and  often  in  the  essays  and 
proverb  clusters  of  Ecclus.  (iv.  i;  vi.  18;  x.  28;  xiv.  n;  etc.).  Compare  the  use 
of  '  My  Children  '  (Ecclus.  xli.  14)  and  '  Young  Man '  (Eccles.  xi.  9). 

8  Compare  the  titles  of  the  sonnets,  etc,,  in  the  Appendix. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS   OF  WISDOM  321 

as  laying  snares  for  their  own  lives ;  another  contrasts  the  path 
of  the  wicked  with  the  path  of  the  righteous  shining  on  from 
dawn  to  perfect  day;  others  denounce  the  vices  that  Wisdom 
would  hate.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  poems  Wisdom  is  cele- 
brated directly  :  appearing  as  a  gracious  personality  speaking  her 
winning  invitations,  in  contrast  with  the  '  strange  woman '  that 
lures  fools  to  their  death ;  or  as  the  great  prize  in  view  the  sight 
of  which  is  to  make  even  chastening  endurable  ;  or  as  the  '  prin- 
cipal thing '  coming  down  from  venerable  tradition.  In  some 
places  this  Wisdom  narrows  to  the  prudence  that  takes  alarm  at 
the  idea  of  suretiship  for  another,  or  the  diligence  that  hates  the 
sluggard.  But  elsewhere  it  gradually  widens  its  scope,  from  the 
caution  checking  a  personal  impulse  to  sin,  till  it  gathers  into 
itself  all  subtlety  and  discretion,  the  knowledge  of  the  counsellor 
and  the  justice  of  the  great,  and  appears  at  last  as  the  universal 
principle  that  has  made  the  strength  and  beauty  of  the  whole 
universe,  playmate  of  the  Creator  from  the  earliest  birth  of  time. 

The  second  book  has  for  its  title  :  '  The  Proverbs  of  Solomon,' 
and  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  sections.   Except  that  a  few  triplets1 

have  somehow  crept  into  it,  this  whole  book  is  a 
x-xxii.  16  mass  of  unit  proverbs.     No  attempt  has  been  made 

to  arrange  them ;  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word 
the  second  book  is  a  miscellany.     The  third  book  is  a  Gnomic 

Epistle.     Its   introduction   makes  clear   that  it  is 

Third  Book  ,,.  ,    .  ,  . 

xxu.  i7-xxiv        delivered  in  writing,  and  on  the  application  of  a 
delegate  who  represents  others  beside  himself :  the 
suggestion  is  of  the  intercourse  that  prevailed  between  Wise  Men 
at  a  distance,  such  as  Solomon  and  Hiram  of  Tyre. 

Incline  thine  ear,  and  hear  the  words  of  the  wise,  and  apply  thine 
heart  unto  my  knowledge;  for  it  is  a  pleasant  thing  if  thou  keep 
them  within  thee,  if  they  be  established  together  upon  thy  lips. 
That  thy  trust  may  be  in  the  LORD,  I  have  made  them  known  to  thee 
this  day,  even  to  thee.  Have  not  I  written  unto  thee  excellent  things 
of  counsels  and  knowledge;  to  make  thee  know  the  certainty  of  the 
words  of  truth,  that  thou  mayest  carry  back  words  of  truth  to  them 
that  send  thee?  i  xix.  7  and  23,  etc. 


322  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR  WISDOM 

At  the  end  of  it  there  is  a  postscript  commencing,  "  These  also 
are  sayings  of  the  wise  "  —  an  addition,  presumably,  by  an  editor, 
not  by  the  writer  of  the  epistle.  The  epistle  and  postscript  are 
mainly  made  up  of  epigrams ;  though  there  are  two  sonnets,  and 
a  few  unit  proverbs.1 

The  next  book  is  described  by  its  title  as  '  Proverbs  of  Solo- 
mon '  copied  out  by  the  '  Men  of  Hezekiah."  When  this  is  com- 
pared with  the  second  book  there  is  a  noticeable 

...  ,  ,         Fourth  Book 

difference.     Unit  proverbs  still  preponderate,  but  ^^.^^ 

with  these  mingle  epigrams ;  and  the  occurrence 
of  a  few  proverb  clusters  shows  that  between  the  dates  of  the 
two  collections  the  idea  of  arrangement,  as  well  as  expansion,  has 
come  in.  One  item  in  this  fourth  book  should  be  noted  as  dis- 
tinct from  anything  else  preserved  in  Wisdom  literature  :  it  seems 
to  be  a  Folk  Song  of  Good  Husbandry. 

Be  them  diligent  to  know  the  state  of  thy  flocks,  xxvii.  33-7 

And  look  well  to  thy  herds : 

For  riches  are  not  for  ever; 

And  doth  the  crown  endure  unto  all  generations? 
The  hay  is  carried, 
And  the  tender  grass  sheweth  itself, 
And  the  herbs  of  the  mountains  are  gathered  in. 

The  lambs  are  for  thy  clothing, 

And  the  goats  are  the  price  of  the  field : 

And  there  will  be  goat's  milk  enough  for  thy  food, 

For  the  food  of  thy  household ; 

And  maintenance  for  thy  maidens. 

The  last  book  is  made  up  of  shorter  collections :  the  sayings  of 
Agur,  chiefly  fixed  or   number  sonnets ;  the  epi-  Fifth  Book 
grams  of  Lemuel's  mother ;  and  the  famous  poem  x**-***1 
on  the  Virtuous  Woman,  which  in  the  original  is  an  acrostic. 

To  the  whole  collection  is  prefixed  what,  in  modern  phrase- 
ology, might  be  called  an  elaborate  title-page. 

1  Compare  throughout  the  chapter  the  analysis  of  the  books  in  the  Appendix. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS   OF  WISDOM  323 

THE  PROVERBS  OF  SOLOMON 
The  Son  of  David,  King  of  Israel 

To  know  wisdom  and  instruction; 

To  discern  the  words  of  understanding; 

To  receive  instruction  in  wise  dealing, 

In  righteousness  and  judgement  and  equity: 

To  give  subtilty  to  the  simple, 

To  the  young  man  knowledge  and  discretion : 

That  the  wise  man  may  hear,  and  increase  in  learning; 

And  that  the  man  of  understanding  may  attain  unto  sound  counsels : 

To  understand  a  proverb,  and  a  figure; 
The  words  of  the  wise,  and  their  dark  sayings. 

This  title-page  is  not  meant  to  describe  the  whole  contents  of  the 
collection  as   proverbs   of  Solomon;   else,  why  should  the  title 
'  Proverbs  of  Solomon '  be  repeated  at  the  head  of 
Titie-Page  particular  sections  ?   The  prominence  of  this  expres- 

sion in  the  general  title  may  be  explained  in  one 
of  two  ways.  The  longest  section  may  have  given  its  name  to  the 
whole :  a  thing  quite  familiar  to  us  in  modern  literature.  But 
when  we  observe  the  contents  of  the  sections  specifically  designated 
'  Proverbs  of  Solomon,'  and  see  the  preponderance  in  them  of  one 
kind  of  saying,  the  suggestion  must  occur  that  the  phrase  is  the 
description  of  a  type  :  and  this  Solomonian  Proverb  would  seem 
to  include  the  unit  proverb  and  the  brief  epigrams. 

If,  then,  we  survey  the  Book  of  Proverbs  as  a  whole,  we  find  it  a 
miscellany  comprising  various  literary  types,  from  the  germ  prov- 
Tne  Book  of  er^  to  tne  elaborate  sonnet  or  dramatic  monologue ; 
Proverbs  as  a  what  arrangement  there  is,  is  based  on  the  kind  of 
composition,  or  has  reference  to  author  or  compiler. 
The  philosophic  attitude  reflected  in  the  book  is  that  of  discon- 
nected observations ;  there  is  no  attempt  to  combine  observations 
into  a  system.  The  correlation  of  all  things,  which  is  the  instinc- 
tive aim  of  modern  philosophy,  has  not  at  this  period  come  to  be 
treated  with  analytic  reflection ;  it  is  on  the  other  hand  passion- 
ately adored  under  the  name  of '  Wisdom.' 


324  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR  WISDOM 

The  next  work  for  our  consideration  is  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus 
the  son  of  Sirach,  which  has  curiously  come  to  be  known  familiarly 

Ecclesiasticus  •  ^y  ^e  t^e»  ^cc^es^as^cus  •'  tnat  is>  a  book  to  be 
a  miscellany  in  read  in  churches,  as  distinguished  from  a  book  of 

canonical  authority.  Like  Proverbs,  this  work  is  a 
miscellany,  and  all  forms  of  Wisdom  literature  are  represented  in 
it.  The  difference  of  the  two  might  fairly  be  described  by  saying 
that  they  represent,  in  general  impression,  the  poetic  side  of 
Wisdom  and  its  rhetoric  side  respectively  ;  what  sonnets  and 
dramatic  monologues  are  to  Proverbs,  that  essays  and  rhetoric 

encomia  are  to  Ecclesiasticus.  The  work  falls 
Prefaces  to  the  naturany  jnto  five  books  ;  the  dividing  points  being 


DOOKS 

made  by  the  emergence  of  the  author's  personality, 
and  his  celebration,  not  of  particular  themes,  but  of  Wisdom  and 
the  works  of  God  as  a  whole.    The  first  book  starts  from  an 
account  of  the  author  by  his  grandson,  followed  by  a  sonnet  on 
Wisdom.    At  the  opening  of  the  second  book  the  author's 
preface   is  interwoven  into  an  encomium  on  Wisdom. 
"  Wisdom,"  cries  the  author,  "  shall  praise  herself." 

I  came  from  the  mouth  of  the  Most  High, 

And  covered  the  earth  as  a  mist. 
I  dwelt  in  high  places, 

And  my  throne  is  in  the  pillar  of  the  cloud. 
Alone  I  compassed  the  circuit  of  heaven, 

And  walked  in  the  depth  of  the  abyss. 
In  the  waves  of  the  sea,  and  in  all  the  earth, 

And  in  every  people  and  nation,  I  got  a  possession. 
With  all  these  I  sought  rest  ; 

And  in  whose  inheritance  shall  I  lodge  ? 
So  the  Creator  of  all  things  gave  me  a  commandment; 

And  he  that  created  me  made  my  tabernacle  to  rest, 
And  said,  Let  thy  tabernacle  be  in  Jacob, 

And  thine  inheritance  in  Israel. 

Wisdom  dwells  upon  her  exaltation  and  beauty,  and  on  her  riches  ; 
then  the  author  speaks  to  identify  these  riches  with  the  law  of  the 
Lord,  from  whom  came  the  abundance  of  Wisdom. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS   OF  WISDOM  325 

The  first  man  knew  her  not  perfectly;  and  in  like  manner  the  last 
hath  not  traced  her  out.  For  her  thoughts  are  filled  from  the  sea, 
and  her  counsels  from  the  great  deep.  And  I  came  out  as  a  stream 
from  a  river,  and  as  a  conduit  into  a  garden.  I  said,  I  will  water  my 
garden,  and  will  water  abundantly  my  garden  bed;  and  lo,  my  stream 
became  a  river,  and  my  river  became  a  sea.  I  will  yet  bring  instruc- 
tion to  light  as  the  morning,  and  will  make  them  to  shine  forth 
afar  off. 

In  this  quaint  and  beautiful  figure  does  the  author  express  to 
the  reader  how  his  materials  have  grown  upon  him,  and  he  must 
add  a  second  book  to  the  first.  The  third  book  is 

,.-         -         .         ,.,i  xmii.  16-18 

opened  only  by  a  brief  preface  in  which  the  author 
describes  himself  as  one  gleaning  after  grape  gatherers;  but  in 
the  case  of  the  remaining  two  books  the  author 
appears  at  the  commencement  inviting  to  the  praise  ™^'  "  and 
of  God's  works,  and  so  introducing  what  are  rhet- 
oric encomia  closely  bordering  on  hymns. 

In  this  fifth  book  occurs  that  which  is  the  most  extended  of  all 
the  compositions  so  far  noted  in  this  department,  —  the  Encomium 
on  Famous  Men.     In  the  prologue  the  author  pro-  Encomium  on 
poses   to  praise  those  who   have   manifested   the  Famous  Men 
Lord's  mighty  power,  whether  as  rulers,  or  coun-  xliv~1- a4 
sellers,  or  men  of  learning ;  inventors  of  music  and  verse ;  or  rich 
men  living  peaceably  in  their  habitations. 

There  be  of  them,  that  have  left  a  name  behind  them,  to  declare 
their  praises.  And  some  there  be  which  have  no  memorial;  who  are 
perished  as  though  they  had  not  been,  and  are  become  as  though 
they  had  not  been  born;  and  their  children  after  them.  But  these 
were  men  of  mercy  whose  righteous  deeds  have  not  been  forgotten. 
With  their  seed  shall  remain  continually  a  good  inheritance;  their 
children  are  within  the  covenants. 

In  a  tone  of  dignified  panegyric  he  goes  through  the  roll  of  Israel's 
great  men :  Enoch,  Noah,  the  patriarchs ;  Moses,  the  man  of 
mercy,  with  Aaron  and  the  third  in  glory  the  zealous  Phinehas ; 


326  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR   WISDOM 

Nathan,  David,  Solomon,  Josiah  of  fragrant  memory,  until  he  ends 
with  Simon  whom,  in  all  the  pomp  of  his  priestly  function,  he 
describes  with  the  vividness  of  an  eye-witness. 

Immediately  after  the  close  of  this  Encomium  the  work  ends 
with  something  that  reads  like  the  colophon  of  a  medi-  Colo  hQD 
seval  book,  made  out  of  a  number  sonnet  and  a  beatitude,  i.  35-9 

With  two  nations  is  my  soul  vexed, 
And  the  third  is  no  nation : 

They  that  sit  upon  the  mountain  of  Samaria, 

And  the  Philistines, 
And  the  foolish  people  that  dwelleth  in  Sichem. 

I  have  written  in  this  book  the  instruction  of  understanding  and 
knowledge,  I  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach,  of  Jerusalem,  who  out  of  his  heart 
poured  forth  wisdom. 

Blessed  is  he  that  shall  be  exercised  in  these  things; 

And  he  that  layeth  them  up  in  his  heart  shall  become  wise. 
For  if  he  do  them,  he  shall  be  strong  to  all  things : 

For  the  light  of  the  Lord  is  his  guide. 

There  is  still  added  after  this  a  '  Prayer  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Si- 
rach,' with  a  confession  of  faith  in  Wisdom ;  from  their  position 
they  may  be  assumed  to  be  either  the  insertion  of  the       u 
grandson,  or  other  editor,  or  (more  probably)  the  preface 
to  the  whole  book  as  left  by  its  author. 

It  is  instructive  to  compare  Ecclesiasticus  and  Proverbs  as  types 
of  Wisdom  literature.     If  the  comparison  be  made  pi.ovei.bs  and 
of  individual  compositions  in  the  two  works,  those  of  Ecclesiasticus 
Ecclesiasticus  will  be  found  to  show  a  marked  ad-  c 
vance  as  regards  the  combination  of  shorter  into  longer,  which 
implies  the  extension  of  more  limited  into  wider  observations  of 
life.     The  proverb  cluster,  so  slenderly  represented  in  the  Book 
of  Proverbs,  has  a  considerable  place  in  the  later  work ;  and  a 
still  larger  space  in  it  is  occupied  by  the  essay,  which,  we  have 
seen,  carries  the  aggregation  of  unit  proverbs  to  a  higher  degree 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS  OF  WISDOM  327 

of  fusion.  But  when  we  look  at  Ecclesiasticus  as  a  whole,  its  con- 
tents appear  as  miscellaneous  as  those  of  Proverbs ;  the  work 
clearly  appeals  to  a  discursive  taste,  unhampered  by  any  thought 
of  system  or  arrangement ;  and,  however  elaborate  the  essays  or 
sonnets  may  become,  these  have  not  been  thought  by  the  author 
inconsistent  with  considerable  spaces  left  for  entirely  disconnected 
proverbs.  This  is  the  more  striking  from  the  fact  that  the  later 
work  is  not,  like  Proverbs,  a  combination  of  different  collections  ; 
it  is  entirely  the  work  of  a  single  author,  who  has  spoken  in  his 
own  person  to  mark  the  beginnings  and  endings  of  the  five  books  : 
making  it  clear  that  the  miscellaneous  character  of  the  work  be- 
longs to  the  author's  conception  of  Philosophy,  and  is  not  the  re- 
sult of  chance  or  want  of  care.  We  have  thus  reached  a  phase  of 
thought  in  which  systematisation  begins  to  work  upon  the  more 
fragmentary  observations  of  life,  without  approaching  the  concep- 
tion of  life  and  the  universe  as  a  whole.  Wisdom  and  the  works 
of  God  in  general  are  still  celebrated  with  poetic  or  rhetoric  fer- 
vour. The  last  composition,  the  Praise  of  Famous  Men,  shows 
that  the  conception  of  Wisdom  has  now  enlarged  to  take  in  his- 
tory. But  this  history  is  touched  only  with  the  tone  of  panegyric ; 
and  Ecclesiasticus  thus  contrasts  with  a  later  work  of  this  depart- 
ment, in  which  we  shall  see  history  subjected  to  philosophic 
reflection  and  analysis. 

What  Ecclesiasticus  is  to  the  Old  Testament,  that  the  Epistle  of 
St.  James  is  to  the  New.  We  have  already  seen  in  a  portion  of 
the  Book  of  Proverbs  a  precedent  for  a  Wisdom 
EPistle ;  and  with  this  conception  fits  the  differ- 
ence of  tone  which  every  reader  perceives  between 
this  portion  of  the  New  Testament  and  all  the  rest.  The  Apostle, 
moreover,  shows  himself  a  deep  student  of  Ecclesiasticus,  the 
thoughts  of  which  he  frequently  echoes.1  Of  course,  the  matter  of 

1  For  the  Essay  on  the  "  Origin  of  the  Evil,"  etc.  (St.  James  i.  12-27),  compare 
Ecclus.  Essay  on  Free  Will  (xv.  11-20);  and  also  Ecclus.  v.  n  and  iv.  10. — For 
the  Essay  on  the  "  Responsibility  of  Speech  "  (St.  James  iii.  1-12)  compare  Ecclus. 


328  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR   WISDOM 

the  epistle  has  enlarged  to  take  in  Christian  thought,  and  'My 
Son'  has  changed  into  'My  Brethren.'  But  the  form  is  that  of 
Proverbs  and  Ecclesiasticus  —  a  miscellany :  the  epistle  will  not 
yield  a  connected  line  of  thought  such  as  is  traced  in  the  writings 
of  St.  Paul,  but  must  be  read  as  a  series  of  independent  essays. 
Two  of  these  essays  have  been  cited  in  the  last  chapter  —  that  on 
the  Sources  of  the  Evil  and  the  Good  in  Man,  and  another  on  the 
Responsibility  of  Speech.  Others  are  On  Faith  and  Works ;  On 
Respect  of  Persons ;  On  the  Earthly  Wisdom  and  the  Wisdom 
from  above ;  A  Discourse  on  Judgment.  And  here,  as  in  other 
Books  of  Wisdom,  we  find  interspersed  between  these  longer 
essays  maxims  and  paradoxes  entirely  disconnected. 

To  the  same  category  must  be  referred  what  appears  in  our 
versions  as  The  First  Epistle  of  St.  John.  This  lacks  even  the 
superscription  which  St.  James  has,  as  well  as  all  other  marks  of 
an  epistle.  On  the  other  hand,  it  opens  with  a  peculiarly  formal 
preface. 

That  which  was  from  the  beginning,  that  which  we  have  heard, 
that  which  we  have  seen  with  our  eyes,  that  which  we  beheld,  and 
our  hands  handled,  concerning  the  Word  of  life :  .  .  .  that  which 
we  have  seen  and  heard  declare  we  unto  you  also,  that  ye  also  may 
have  fellowship  with  us :  yea,  and  our  fellowship  is  with  the  Father, 
and  with  his  Son  Jesus  Christ :  and  these  things  we  write  that  our 
joy  may  be  fulfilled. 

Of  the  same  spirit  is  the  epilogue,  in  the  form  of  a  threefold 
creed. 

WE  KNOW  that  whosoever  is  begotten  of  God  sinneth  not;  but  he 
that  was  begotten  of  God  keepeth  him,  and  the  evil  one  toucheth 
him  not.  ^ 

WE  KNOW  that  we  are  of  God,  and  the  whole  world  lieth  in  the 
evil  one. 


Essay  on  Gossip  (xix.  5-17),  on  the  Tongue  (xxviii.  12-26).  —  Other  parallels  are 
Ecclus.  i.  26  and  St.  James  i.  5;  Ecclus.  ii.  1-6  and  St.  James  \.  12;  Ecclus.  ii.  i 
and  14  and  St.  James  i.  2-4 ;  Ecclus.  iv.  1-6,  xxi.  5  with  St.  James  v.  4 ;  Ecclus. 
x.  22-24  and  Si-  James  ii.  1-6.  —  Possibly  the  somewhat  obscure  paradox  in  St, 
James  i.  9  may  be  an  echo  of  Ecclus.  iii.  18-19. 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS   OF  WISDOM  329 

And  WE  KNOW  that  the  Son  of  God  is  come,  and  hath  given  us  an 
understanding,  that  we  know  him  that  is  true,  and  we  are  in  him 
that  is  true,  even  in  his  Son  Jesus  Christ. 

This  is  the  true  God,  and  eternal  life.  Little  children,  guard  your- 
selves from  idols. 

The  inclusion  of  this  work  in  the  literature  of  address  is  probably 
due  to  the  recurrence  of  such  terms  as  Little  children,  Beloved : 
these,  however,  are  only  variations  of  the  My  Sons,  which  is  a 
formula  of  introduction  for  Old  Testament  wisdom.  As  in  wisdom 
literature,  we  find  a  series  of  independent  sayings,  like  the  Thoughts 
of  Pascal :  such  topics  appear  as  Love,  Faith,  Love  of  the  World, 
Love  of  the  Brethren,  Cleansing  from  Sin,  Antichrist,  Sons  of  God, 
The  Three  Ages,  The  Three  who  bear  witness.  If,  however,  the 
structure  is  assimilated  to  Old  Testament  wisdom  literature,  the 
matter  is  the  highly  specialised  form  of  Christian  thought  and 
sentiment  which  belongs  to  the  fourth  Gospel. 

We  now  approach  Ecclesiastes :  most  fascinating  of  all  Wisdom 
literature  to  those  who  desire  only  to  read,  while  it  is  the  stumbling- 
block  of  all  who  have  the  responsibility  of  inter- 
preting.    Yet  the  difficulties  and  obscurities  which  Ecclesiastes: 
*          °  its  form 

undoubtedly  attach  to  this  work  have  been  much 

aggravated  by  the  neglect  of  the  axiom  on  which  I  have  so 
frequently  insisted  :  that  it  is  vain  to  search  into  the  meaning  of  a 
work  until  its  outer  literary  form  has  been  determined.  Our  first 
duty  then  is  to  enquire  into  the  form  of  Ecclesiastes,  basing  our 
enquiry  upon  the  book  itself,  and  also  upon  what  may  be  expected 
from  the  analogy  of  other  Wisdom  literature. 

In  the  first  place,  Ecclesiastes,  like  the  other  Books  of  Wisdom  we 
have  surveyed,  contains  a  series  of  essays :  the  attempt  to  trace  a 
continuous  argument  from  beginning  to  end  must  be  dismissed. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  most  cursory  examination  shows  a  new 
purpose  in  the  thinkings  of  the  preacher  such  as  is  sure  to  affect 
the  form  of  the  book.  We  find  in  Ecclesiastes,  what  was  so 
markedly  absent  from  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiasticus,  that  reflection 


330  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

has  now  been  turned  upon  life  as  a  whole,  and  particular  obser- 
vations have  a  reference  to  the  general  problem  of  reading  the 
meaning  of  existence.  Accordingly,  the  individual  essays  in  this 
book  must  be  expected  to  unite  in  some  common  drift;  their 
mutual  relation  can  best  be  expressed  by  borrowing  —  as  literature 
so  often  must  —  a  term  from  music,  and  Ecclesiastes  may  be 
described  as  a  suite  of  essays.  One  more  point  needs  to  be 
insisted  upon.  In  each  collection  of  Wisdom  literature  we  have 
found  that,  whatever  else  there  might  be,  there  was  always  a  place 
for  series  of  disconnected  proverbs  interspersed  amongst  more 
extended  compositions.  This  feature  is  not  wanting  to  the  work 
under  consideration  :  of  the  ten  sections  (to  include  prologue  and 
epilogue)  into  which  I  have  divided  the  whole,1  three  are  not 
essays,  but  strings  of  disconnected  sayings  and  paradoxes,  more 
or  less  tinged  with  the  tone  of  the  author,  but  outside  the  drift  of 
thought  in  the  essays.  The  recognition  of  such  gaps  in  the  unity 
is  clearly  of  importance  to  the  interpretation  of  the  whole ;  yet  it 
is  no  more  than  we  are  bound  to  expect  from  the  analogy  of  other 
Wisdom  literature. 

We  find,  then,  Ecclesiastes  to  be  in  form  a  suite  of  independent 
essays,  regularly  disposed  between  a  formal  prologue  and  epilogue, 
concurring  to  present  some  enquiry  into  life  as  a  whole,  and 
separated  at  intervals  by  collections  of  the  isolated  sayings  which 
had  constituted  the  older  conception  of  Wisdom.  Our  business 
must  be  to  follow  the  thought  of  the  separate  essays,  and  then  put 
our  results  together  in  order  to  understand  the  Preacher's  general 
view  of  life  and  the  universe. 

The  Prologue  breathes  the  spirit  of  the  whole  in  its  reiteration, 
"  Vanity  of  vanities,  all  is  vanity."  Philosophy  has  turned  itself 
from  mere  observation  of  the  details  to  contemplation 
°f tne  wn°le>  and  in  this  contemplation  can  see  no  solid 
result ;  its  enquiry,  to  use  a  phrase  of  a  later  essay,  is  a 
striving  after  wind  —  continuous  pursuit  of  that  which  continu- 
ally eludes. 

1  Compare  the  Literary  Index  in  Appendix  I. 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS   OF  WISDOM  331 

One  generation  goeth,  and  another  generation  cometh ;  and  the 
earth  abideth  for  ever.  The  sun  also  ariseth,  and  the  sun  goeth 
down,  and  hasteth  to  his  place  where  he  ariseth.  The  wind  goeth 
toward  the  south,  and  turneth  about  unto  the  north ;  it  turneth  about 
continually  in  its  course,  and  the  wind  returneth  again  to  its  circuits. 
All  the  rivers  run  into  the  sea,  yet  the  sea  is  not  full;  unto  the  place 
whither  the  rivers  go,  thither  they  go  again.  All  things  are  full  of 
weariness;  man  cannot  utter  it:  the  eye  is  not  satisfied  with  seeing, 
nor  the  ear  filled  with  hearing.  That  which  hath  been  is  that  which 
shall  be ;  and  that  which  hath  been  done  is  that  which  shall  be  done : 
and  there  is  no  new  thing  under  the  sun. 

The  writer's  imagination  has  been  overpowered  by  the  vast  "  wheel 
of  nature  "  :  the  first  glimpse  from  the  outside  of  that  interde- 
pendence of  things  which  modern  science  has  tracked  up  to  the 
conservation  of  energy.  In  contemplation  of  this,  life  seems  not 
a  progress  but  a  treadmill,  and  the  human  world  is  drawn  within 
the  tyranny  of  Law.  The  impressiveness  of  this  prologue  appears 
the  greater  when  it  is  realised  that  the  '  All,'  which  is  thus  pro- 
nounced 'vanity,'  is  precisely  that  which  previous  books  would 
joyously  celebrate  under  the  name  of  'Wisdom.'  Philosophic 
reflection  has  been  turned  on  to  the  sum  of  things,  and  adoration 
has  changed  to  elegy. 

We  proceed  to  the  first  essay,  and  at  the  outset'  are  met  by  an 
obstacle  :  the  unfortunate  misinterpretation  of  a  single  verse  —  a 
double  misinterpretation  —  has  had   the  effect  of 
throwing  a  false  colour  over  the  whole  work.     The  j.ia_ii 
essay  opens  with  the  words  :  "  I  the  Preacher  was 
king  over  Israel  in  Jerusalem  "  :  and  what  follows  identifies  the 
king  referred  to  with  King  Solomon.     Hence  readers  have  jumped 
to  the  conclusion  that  Solomon  was  the  author  of  Ecclesiastes, 
The  mistake  is  not  unnatural  in  a  modern  reader,  whose  leading 

interest  in  a  literary  work  is  apt  to  be  the  author  :  , 

*  Mistake  as  to 

but  a  student  of  Comparative  Literature  will  see  at  Solomon's  au- 

once   that   these   words   make   Solomon,  not   the  thorship  of  the 

book 
author,  but  the  hero  of  the  narrative  that  follows. 

Several  schools  of  ancient   philosophy  instinctively  attributed  to 


332  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM    . 

the  first  founder  all  that  each  follower  produced.  In  this  way 
the  whole  of  Plato's  philosophy  is  given  to  the  world,  not  in  the 
form  of  abstract  arguments  by  Plato  himself,  but  in  highly  dra- 
matic dialogues,  in  which  Socrates,  as  main  speaker,  is  represented 
in  discussion  with  other  prominent  men  of  the  age,  the  discussion 
abounding  in  touches  of  wit,  scenery,  and  action,  as  artistically 
disposed  as  in  the  scenes  of  Shakespeare.  No  reader  ever  sup- 
posed that  Socrates  said  what  Plato  represents  him  to  say;  but 
Socrates  had  started  the  impulse  of  thought  which  produced  Plato, 
and  the  scholar  pays  reverence  to  his  master  by  making  him  the 
hero  of  his  dialogues.  Another  striking  instance  has  been  pointed 
out  by  a  recent  writer  on  this  book : 1  that  the  school  of  Pythag- 
oras considered  the  drowning  of  one  of  their  number  a  judg- 
ment upon  him  because  he  had  put  forward  his  discovery  in  his 
own  name,  instead  of  making  it  part  of  the  philosophy  of  Pythag- 
oras. But  there  is  no  need  to  go  so  far  for  illustrations  :  a  com- 
panion production  to  this  Ecclesiastes  is  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
which,  at  a  date  little  removed  from  the  Christian  era,  makes 
King  Solomon  the  speaker  of  all  the  philosophic  stores  of  that 
late  age.  It  belongs  to  Hebrew  philosophy,  we  have  seen,  to 
clothe  itself  in  poetic  and  dramatic  form :  to  put  into  the  mouth 
of  Solomon  reflections  a  later  writer  thinks  fitted  to  his  personality 
is  no  more  than  an  extension  of  the  dramatising  treatment  by 
which,  in  Proverbs,  Wisdom  was  personified  as  the  inviter  to  all 
good  things.  On  the  other  hand,  authorship  is  a  question  of 
dates ;  and,  apart  from  this  verse,  all  the  indications  of  language, 
style,  and  matter,  are  found  by  experts  to  indicate  a  date  for  the 
book  centuries  later  than  that  of  Solomon.  Dr.  Ginsburg  has 
pronounced  it  as  impossible  for  Solomon  to  be  the  author  of 
Ecclesiastes,  as  for  Chaucer  to  be  the  writer  of  Rasselas. 

The  old  interpretation  involves  a  double  mistake.     Not  only  is 

Solomon  the  hero  instead  of  the  author,  but  he  is  the  hero  for 

only  a  fraction  of  the  whole  book.     The  narrative  that  commences 

with  the  verse  under  discussion  extends  no  further  than  the  close 

i  Article  Ecclesiastes  in  Sir  William  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS   OF   WISDOM  333 

of  the  second  chapter.1  From  that  point  onward  there  is  not 
to  be  found  a  sentence  that  associates  itself  with  Solomon. 
And  in  the  prologue  and  epilogue,  where  we  naturally  look  for 
personal  touches,  there  is  no  trace  of  this  wise  king,  either  in 
direct  mention,  or  in  circumstances  into  which  his  personality  can 
be  fitted. 

The  connection  of  Solomon,  then,  with  the  book  as  a  whole 
must  be  abandoned ;  and  with  it  must  be  given  up  the  idea  of 
finding  in  the  unwholesome  life  of  that  monarch  an  explanation 
for  the  tone  of  Ecclesiastes.  Solomon's  place  in  the  book  is 
limited  to  a  single  essay,  which  may  be  entitled  :  Solomon's  Great 
Experiment.  .  The  author  identifies  himself  for  the  moment 
with  this  famous  king,  as  the  one  individual  in  whom  wealth, 
wisdom,  and  power  met  in  their  highest  forms,  and  in  his  person 
the  Preacher  supposes  himself  to  go  through  an  experience  de- 
signed to  test  all  the  forms  of  positive  good  in  which  men 
believe.  First,  he  will  use  his  resources  to  accumulate 
all  kinds  of  pleasure,  including  such  pleasures  as  wise  men  call 
follies,  but  he  will  keep  all  the  time  his  reflective  powers  un- 
impaired for  the  purpose  of  testing  what  he  enjoys. 

I  made  me  great  works;  I  builded  me  houses;  I  planted  me 
vineyards;  I  made  me  gardens  and  parks,  and  I  planted  trees  in 
them  of  all  kinds  of  fruit:  I  made  me  pools  of  water,  to  water 
therefrom  the  forest  where  trees  were  reared :  I  bought  men-servants 
and  maidens,  and  had  servants  born  in  my  house;  also  I  had  great 
possessions  of  herds  and  flocks,  above  all  that  were  before  me  in 
Jerusalem:  I  gathered  me  also  silver  and  gold,  and  the  peculiar 
treasure  of  kings  and  of  the  provinces :  I  gat  me  men  singers  and 
women  singers,  and  the  delights  of  the  sons  of  men,  concubines  very 
many.  So  I  was  great,  and  increased  more  than  all  that  were  before 
me  in  Jerusalem :  also  my  wisdom  remained  with  me.  And  whatso- 
ever mine  eyes  desired  I  kept  not  from  them :  I  withheld  not  my 
heart  from  any  joy,  for  my  heart  rejoiced  because  of  all  my  labour; 

1  Even  less  far  than  that  if  we  assume  the  marginal  readings  of  R.  V.  (to  ii.  5, 
and  the  first  of  those  to  ii.  12)  ;  it  would  then  extend  no  further  than  ii.  n.  This 
would  ascribe  to  Solomon  just  that  part  of  the  whole  experiment  which  none  but 
Solomon  could  have  fully  carried  out. 


33*  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR  WISDOM 

and  this  was  my  portion  from  all  my  labour.  Then  I  lo.oked  on  all 
the  works  that  my  hands  had  wrought,  and  on  the  labour  that  I  had 
laboured  to  do :  and,  behold,  all  was  vanity  and  a  striving  after  wind, 
and  there  was  no  profit  under  the  sun. 

From  pleasure  he  turns  to  experiment  in  the  field   of  wisdom 

itself  and  its  opposite.     He  finds  indeed  that  wisdom  excels  folly 

as  far  as  light  excels  darkness  :  but  he  finds  also  that  "  one 

event "  happeneth  to  both.     There  is  yet  a  third  region 

to  be  tried  —  labour,  or  as  we  should  call  it,  enterprise  :  not  the 

enjoyment  of  wealth,  but  its  production.     But  this  also  seems  to 

fail  in  the  end,  when  the  labourer  must  die  and  leave  his 

labour  to  another,  not  knowing  whether  this  other  will 

prove  a  wise  man  or  a  fool.     So  the  result  of  all  this  experimenting 

is  that  there  is  no  criterion  for  ranking  anything  as  higher  than 

mere  enjoyment.     Is,  then,  this  enjoyment  the  one  reality  that  has 

stood  the  test  of  his  long  enquiry  ?     Not  at  all :  for  the  thought  soon 

follows  that  this  enjoyment  is  not  a  thing  in  man's  power, 

but  is  itself  the  gift  of  God.     The  great  experiment  has 

yielded  only  negative  results  :  "  vanity  and  a  striving  after  wind." 

The  second  essay  may  be  entitled :  The  Philosophy  of  Times 

and  Seasons.     A  certain   theory   of  the   universe 

secona^Essay        seems  to  be  suggested,  as  something  to  satisfy  the 

craving  for  an  explanation  of  things,  for  which  the 

great  experiment  had  failed  to  provide.     The  theory  is  stated, 

examined,  and  rejected. 

To  everything  there  is  a  season,  and  a  time  to  every  purpose  under 
the  heaven:  a  time  to  be  born,  and  a  time  to  die;  a  time  to  plant, 
and  a  time  to  pluck  up  that  which  is  planted ;  a  time  to  kill,  and  a 
time  to  heal;  a  time  to  break  down,  and  a  time  to  build  up;  a  time 
to  weep,  and  a  time  to  laugh ;  a  time  to  mourn,  and  a  time  to  dance ; 
a  time  to  cast  away  stones,  and  a  time  to  gather  stones  together;  a 
time  to  embrace,  and  a  time  to  refrain  from  embracing;  a  time  to 
seek,  and  a  time  to  lose;  a  time  to  keep,  and  a  time  to  cast  away; 
a  time  to  rend,  and  a  time  to  sew;  a  time  to  keep  silence,  and  a  time 
to  speak;  a  time  to  love,  and  a  time  to  hate;  a  time  for  war,  and  a 
time  for  peace. 


THE  SACRED  BOOKS   OF   WISDOM  335 

Hebrew  philosophy  affects  artistic,  and  especially  gnomic  forms, 
and  in  the  guise  of  this  tour  de  force  of  enumeration  is  clothed  a 
very  intelligible  philosophy ;  —  indeed,  that  which  was  the  uncon- 
scious theory  underlying  the  old  Wisdom,  with  its  tendency  to 
observe  the  parts,  but  turn  no  reflection  upon  the  whole.  It  is  a 
sort  of  practical  eclecticism  ;  a  disposition  to  recognise  differences 
of  kind  in  good  things  without  comparing  them.  The  previous 
essay  has  sought  a  summum  bonum :  this  suggests  the  idea,  not 
summum  bonum,  but  multa  bona.  Against  this  theory  the  Preacher 
seems  to  make  four  distinct  objections.  First :  it  is  true 
that  separate  things  have  an  interest  of  their  own.  But  it 
is  also  true  that  God  has  implanted  in  men's  hearts  a  conception 
of  the  universal  underlying  these  particulars ;  so  that  it  is  no 
longer  possible  to  enjoy  these  without  thinking  of  their  bearing 
on  the  whole  ;  while  to  discover  this  last  all  man's  powers  are 
insufficient. 

He  hath  made  everything  beautiful  in  its  time  :  also  he  hath  set  the 
world  in  their  heart,  yet  so  that  man  cannot  find  out  the  work  that 
God  hath  done  from  the  beginning  even  to  the  end. 

Again :   it  is  true   that   there  is   nothing   better  than  to   enjoy. 

But  it  is  also  true  that  this  enjoyment  is  the  gift  of  God, 

ill.  12-15 
and  in  granting  it  God  will  act  upon  principles  as  fixed 

as  fate,  and  no  effort  will  change  him.     Yet  again  :  the  '  seasons  ' 
of  things  are  not  observed  :   wickedness  is  seen  in  the 

iii.  16-33 

place  of  judgment.     A  flash  of  thought  suggests  to  the 
Preacher  that  hereafter  there  may  be  a  righting  of  these  wrongs. 
A  second  flash  rejects  the  idea :  what  guarantee  of  an  hereafter 
has  man  more  than  the  beasts  ? 

I  said  "in  mine  heart,  God  shall  judge  the  righteous  and  the  wicked: 
for  there  is  a  time  THERE  for  every  purpose  and  for  every  work.  I 
said  in  mine  heart,  It  is  because  of  the  sons  of  men,  that  God  may 
prove  them,  and  that  they  may  see  that  th'ey  themselves  are  but  as 
beasts.  For  that  which  befalleth  the  sons  of  men  befalleth  beasts; 
even  one  thing  befalleth  them  :  as  the  one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other. 


336  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR   WISDOM 

As  a  final  objection  the  Preacher  thinks  of  the  things  that  no 

season  can  make  beautiful  :    the  oppression  that  is  worse  than 

death  ;   the  skill  that  exists  at  the  cost  of  bitter  com- 

petition;  the  isolated  life  that  has  no  pleasure  in  its 

own  achievements.     The  essay  ends,  like  the  last,  in  '  vanity.' 

Then  follows  one  of  the  sections  we  have  been  led  to  expect, 
that  are  occupied  with  isolated  proverbs  having  no  relation  to  the 
unity  of  the  whole  book.  The  sayings  are  miscellaneous,  with 
nothing  in  common  except  that  they  are  positive,  not  negative,  in 
form.  It  is  a  section  of  Maxims  of  Life. 

The  fourth  section  is  an  Essay  on  the  Vanity  of  Desire.     It  is 

easy  to  instance   possession  without   enjoyment  :    a  man  loving 

silver  yet  never  satisfied  with  silver  ;  seeing  goods  in- 

crease, but   seeing   also    increased   those  who  consume 

them  ;  or  even  riches  kept  by  the  owner  of  them  to  his  own  hurt. 

But  the  essay  is  mainly  occupied  with  two  companion  pictures. 

One  is  that  of  a  man  to  whom  God  grants  riches  and  wealth, 

and  at  the  same  time  the  power  to  enjoy  them  :  so  much  so  that 

he  may  give  little  thought  to  his  life  as  one  happy  day 

V.  2O 

follows  another,  joy  of  heart  coming  as  answer  to  his 
prayers  almost  before  they  are  uttered.  The  other  picture  is  of 
a  man  on  whom  God  has  bestowed  without  stint  the  same  gifts, 
but  has  denied  him  the  power  to  enjoy  : 

I  say,  that  an  untimely  birth  is  better  than  he  :  for  it  cometh  in 
vanity,  and  departeth  in  darkness,  and  the  name  thereof  is  covered 
with  darkness;  moreover  it  hath  not  seen  the  sun  nor  known  it; 
this  hath  rest  rather  than  the  other. 

The  sight  of  the  eyes  is  better  than  the  vain  wandering  of  desire. 
vi.  lo-ia     Why  should  man  enlarge  his  desires  ? 


Whatsoever  he  be,  his  name  was  given  him  long  ago,  and  it  is 
known  that  he  is  Man. 

The  force  of  these  words  will  be  abundantly  evident  when  we 
recollect  the  tendency  of  ancient  thought  to  look  upon  the  Name 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS   OF   WISDOM  337 

of  a  thing  as  its  formula  of  definition.  Human  activity  is  pre- 
sented as  energy  striving  against  inherent  limitation.  Man  is  Fate 
to  himself. 

After  another  of  the  relief  sections,  occupied  with  miscellaneous 
Paradoxes  of  Life,  we  come  to  an  important  essay,  Fourth  Essay 
which  puts  the  thought  of  the  opening  section  from  ***•  a3-i*.  »* 
a  somewhat  different  point  of  view. 

I  said,  I  will  be  wise;  but  it  was  far  from  me.  That  which  is  is 
far  off,  and  exceeding  deep;  who  can  find  it  out?  I  turned  about, 
and  my  heart  was  set  to  know  and  to  search  out,  and  to  seek  wisdom 
and  the  reason  of  things,  and  to  know  the  wickedness  of  folly,  and 
foolishness  which  is  madness. 

In  other  words  :  Perhaps  the  problem  of  life  is  too  vast  to  be 
solved,  but  is  an  approach  to  the  solution  possible  ?  Accordingly, 
the  enquirer  sets  himself  to  take  what  steps  he  can  in  this  direction. 
Hence  the  essay  may  be  entitled  :  "  The  Search  for  Wisdom  with 
Notes  by  the  way."  The  section  is  a  long  one,  and  in  the  course 
of  it  the  formula,  "  I  find,"  or,  "All  this  have  I  seen,"  ushers  in 
some  particular  observation  presented  as  an  instalment  of  the  solu- 
tion of  life.  There  is  no  need  to  dwell  upon  the  details  ;  most  of 
his  notes  are  notes  of  disappointment.  But  beside  these  one 
stands  out  in  strong  contrast. 

Go  thy  way,  eat  thy  bread  with  joy,  and  drink  thy  wine  with  a 
merry  heart;    for  God  hath  already  accepted  thy  works.     Let  thy 
garments  be  always  white;    and   let   not  thy  head  lack 
ointment.     Live  joyfully  with  the  wife  whom  thou  lovest 
all  the  days  of  the  life  of  thy  vanity,  which  he  hath  given  thee  under 
the  sun,  all  the  days  of  thy  vanity :  for  that  is  thy  portion  in  life,  and 
in  thy  labour  wherein  thou  labourest  under  the  sun. 

There   is   another  miscellaneous  section,   and  then  we   reach 
the  two  final  sections.     These  consist  of  an  essay  Fifth  Essay 
followed  by  a  sonnet.    The  essay  presents  Life  as  and  sonnet 
a  Joy  shadowed  by  the  Judgment.     The  sonnet  **'  7"xli'  7 
is  one  of  the  most  familiar  and  beautiful  of  all  Biblical  poems,  with 
its  symbolic  picture  of  old  age. 


338  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

Rejoice,  O  young  man,  in  thy  youth;  and  let  thy  heart  cheer 
thee  in  the  days  of  thy  youth,  and  walk  in  the  ways  of  thine  heart, 
and  in  the  sight  of  thine  eyes :  but  know  thou,  that  for  all  these 
things  God  will  bring  thee  into  judgement. 

It  is  most  important  to  avoid  reading  into  this  Old  Testament 
Wisdom  associations  drawn  from  the  New  Testament.  'The 
judgment '  is  one  of  the  dominant  ideas  of  Hebrew  literature  :  but 
it  is  by  no  means  what  modern  Christianity  understands  by  that 
term.  That  evil  and  good  are  inherently  antagonistic,  that  evil  is 
doomed  to  fail  in  the  struggle  with  good,  —  this  is  the  thought 
underlying  the  word  'judgment'  in  Old  Testament  poetry:  but 
there  is  in  the  conception  no  note  of  time  and  place,  no  distinc- 
tion even  of  this  world  and  an  hereafter.  Thus  the  effect  of  the 
passage  quoted  is  to  recommend  happiness,  but  happiness  accom- 
panied with  a  sense  of  responsibility.  The  very  shortness  of  life 
is  made  by  this  essay  a  reason  for  putting  sorrow  away,  and  reap- 
ing to  the  full  the  bliss  of  living.  But  with  this  joyous  youth  must 
be  united  the  remembrance  of  Him  who  has  created  it,  and  the 
familiar  sonnet  follows  to  paint  the  coming  of  the  evil  days,  the 
decrepitude  unfavourable  alike  to  the  realisation  of  happiness 
and  to  the  search  after  God. 

The  Epilogue  starts,  like  the  Prologue,  with  the  cry,  "  Vanity 
of  vanities,  all  is  vanity  ! "  It  goes  on  to  say  that  the  Preacher 
continued  to  pour  out  his  stores  of  Wisdom,  that  he  '  pon- 
dered  and  sought  out '  and  '  set  in  order '  many  proverbs  : 
the  latter  term  would  just  describe  the  elaborated  essays 
of  the  book,  as  the  former  expression  would  fit  the  miscellaneous 
sections.  After  a  warning  against  multiplication  of  books,  a  con- 
clusion is  made  by  pronouncing  the  whole  duty  of  man  to  be  the 
fear  of  God  and  the  keeping  of  his  commandments,  in  view  of  the 
judgment  into  which  every  work  will  be  brought. 

The  separate  parts  have  been  surveyed  :  what  is  the  significance 
of  the  whole  ?  The  Prologue  cries,  "  All  is  vanity  "  ;  the  Epilogue, 
"  Fear  God  " ;  the  Essays  have  the  function  of  linking  the  two 
ideas.  A  twofold  spirit,  negative  and  positive,  prevails  through 


THE   SACRED  BOOKS   OF   WISDOM  339 

the  book;  it  is  a  work  of  destructive  criticism,  with  one  posi- 
tive thought  emerging  and  becoming  continually 
stronger.  The  supposed  experiment  of  Solomon 
reduced  all  things  to  the  level  of  enjoyment :  but 
this  enjoyment,  it  was  added,  comes  from  God.  In  the  attack  on 
eclecticism,  the  thought  was  repeated  more  strongly :  enjoyment 
depends,  not  on  the  man  who  is  to  enjoy,  but  on  God,  and  there- 
fore on  inexorable  law.  The  next  essay  elaborately  contrasted 
one  to  whom  God  had  given  wealth  and  the  power  to  enjoy  it, 
with  another  who  had  the  possession  without  the  enjoyment.  In 
the  description  of  the  search  after  Wisdom,  the  gloomy  failures 
were  interrupted  by  a  single  picture  of  bright  simple  happiness, 
with  the  important  addition  that  such  happiness  was  a  token  that 
God  had  accepted  the  man's  works.  And  the  final  essay  occupies 
its  whole  field  with  the  idea  of  joy  tempered  by  a  sense  of  respon- 
sibility. Devout  scepticism  as  a  background  for  natural  happi- 
ness :  this  seems  to  sum  up  the  whole  thought  of  the  book. 
Interpreters  who  have  seen  Ecclesiastes  clouded  by  its  supposed 
connection  with  the  life  of  the  historic  Solomon  have  pronounced 
it  scepticism,  or  hedonism,  or  cynicism.  Cynicism  it  certainly 
is  not :  for  its  one  positive  conclusion  is  the  supremacy  of  happi- 
ness. If  it  be  hedonism,  it  is  hedonism  by  Divine  right.  The 
Preacher  cannot  mention  enjoyment  without  adding  that  it  is 
God's  gift ;  the  happiness  he  celebrates  must  be  '  natural,'  that  is, 
tempered  by  sense  of  responsibility  and  the  thought  of  God's 
judgment;  the  means  of  pleasure,  such  as  wealth  and  position, 
may  be  possessed  by  the  wicked,  but  the  power  to  enjoy  them  is 
God's  own  hall  mark  on  the  man  he  has  accepted.  Scepticism 
this  book  of  Ecclesiastes  certainly  is,  but  it  is  scepticism  with 
constant  reference  to  God.  God  is  recognised  as  the  author  of 
all  things,  the  sole  judge  whose  authority  determines  right  and 
wrong.  Nay,  God  is  represented  as  himself  the  author  of  the 
intellectual  despair  that  is  the  essence  of  scepticism,  since  he  has 
placed  the  world  in  man's  heart,  yet  so  that  man  cannot  find  out 
the  work  that  God  doeth  from  the  beginning  even  unto  the  end. 


340  BIBLICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

The  Bible,  in  the  universality  of  its  literary  field,  finds  a  place  for 

scepticism ;  but  it  presents  a  scepticism  that  is  not  impious  but 

devout,  not  gloomy  but  a  ground  for  sober  happiness  and  a  full  life. 

Yet  there  is  a  point  of  view  from  which  Ecclesiastes  may  be 

Attitude  of  the       described  as  pessimist :  at  all  events  in  compari- 

book  to  a  Future    son  with  another  work  of  Wisdom  literature.     The 

Preacher  surveys  life   as    a  whole :  but  it   is  life 

bounded  by  this  world.     Once  indeed  the  thought  of  a  judgment 

hereafter  occurs  for  a  moment ;  but  it  is  dismissed 
iii.  16-21  .  .        ..          .     .  . 

with  a  despair  that  sees  man  as  only  one  of  the  beasts. 

That  which  befalleth  the  sons  of  men  befalleth  beasts;  even  one 
thing  befalleth  them :  as  the  one  dieth,  so  dieth  the  other;  yea,  they 
all  have  one  breath;  and  man  hath  no  pre-eminence  above  the 
beasts:  for  all  is  vanity.  All  go  unto  one  place;  all  are  of  the  dust, 
and  all  turn  to  dust  again.  Who  knoweth  the  spirit  of  man  whether 
it  goeth  upward,  and  the  spirit  of  the  beast  whether  it  goeth  down- 
ward to  the  earth? 

This  attitude  to  the  future  recurs  again  and  again  :  every  vista 
along  which  the  Preacher  looks  for  light  appears  bounded  by  death. 
Like  the  answer  to  a  challenge,  then,  comes  the  remaining  '  Book 
of  Wisdom,'  which  borrows  once  more  the  dramatic  form  of  the 
historic  Solomon,  and  in  his  name  puts  forward  the  startling  truths 
that  God  made  not  death,  that  righteousness  is  immortal ;  while  it 
proceeds,  with  wonderful  picturesqueness  of  imagination,  to  pre- 
sent the  scene  of- the  judgment  hereafter,  of  which  the  Preacher 
had  despaired.  But  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  is  so  important  in 
matter  and  so  unique  in  form  that  it  needs  a  chapter  to  itself. 


CHAPTER   XV 

'  THE   WISDOM    OF    SOLOMON  ' 

THE  Wisdom  of  Solomon  resembles  the  early  Books  of  Wisdom 
in  clothing  deep  reflection  with  artistic  and  even  dramatic  form. 
It  goes  far  beyond  these  in  the  demands  it  makes   ,  WiSdom  Of 
upon  the  imagination.     The  dramatic  monologue,  Solomon ':  its 
applied  to  the  idea  of  a  judgment  hereafter,  pre- 
sents an  elaborate  and  moving  picture  of  the  wicked  triumphant 
on  earth  and  their  terrible  awakening  beyond  the  grave.     Indeed, 
Wisdom  has  an  artistic  weapon  peculiarly  its  own,  which  may  be 
called  Analytic  Imagination.     With  reverent  curiosity  it  reads  into 
the  cautious  reticence  of  some  sacred  narrative  an  array  of  imagi- 
nary details.    Exodus  speaks  of  a  "  darkness  which  might  be  felt "  : 
Wisdom   boldly  sketches  all  that  the  imprisoned  Egyptians  might 
be  conceived  to  feel  in  that  darkness,  and  the  result  is  one  of  the 
marvels  of  creative  literature. 

The  form  of  the  book  is  distinguished  by  another  character- 
istic,—  a  product  of  different  influences.  The  Apocrypha  stands 
between  our  Old  and  New  Testaments.  When  the  writings  which 
make  the  Old  Testament  came  to  a  close,  Hebrew  literature  still, 
continued  in  an  oral  form  :  the  vast  literature  of  commentary 
which,  from  the  time  of  Ezra,  maintained  itself  and  gathered  vol- 
ume, until,  in  the  Christian  era,  it  took  shape  in  the  Talmud.  It 
would  have  been  strange  if  that  which  made  so  large  a  part  of 
Jewish  religious  life  had  left  no  trace  in  the  written  literature  of 
the  times.  A  slight  trace  may  be  seen  in  what  we  have  called 
maxims,  the  brief  compositions  which  take  the  form  of  texts  with 


342  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR   WISDOM 

comments.     But  in  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon   the  discourses  are 

entirely  in  this  form  of  text  and  comment.1     The 

comments'*  discourses  are  (so  to  speak)  dovetailed  together, 

the  final  thought  of  one  being  akin  to  the  text  of 

the  next.     And  the  whole  book  is  made  up  of  such  discourses  : 

the  strings  of  disconnected  proverbs  which  in  previous  collections 

separated  the  longer  compositions  have  now  disappeared. 

In  this  last  of  the  books  of  Wisdom  there  is  a  curious  feature 

of  style,  which  may  be  just  mentioned  here  :  its  complete  analysis 

belongs  to  commentaries  on  the  individual  work.2     This  is  the 

use  of  Digression,  not  as  an  accidental  device,  but 

as  an  end  in  itself'     What  at  first  ^ves  the  im' 
pression  of  obscurity  is   soon   recognised   as   an 

elaborate  series  of  digressions,  and  digressions  from  those  digres- 
sions, carrying  the  argument  further  and  further  from  the  original 
thought ;  in  one  case  the  dropped  threads  are  regularly  gathered 
up,  and  the  argument  brought  back  to  its  starting-point.  When 
this  peculiarity  is  combined  with  characteristics  previously  men- 
tioned, it  will  be  easy  to  understand  the  following  as  the  structural 
form  of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon :  A  suite  of  five  Discourses  on 
texts,  the  last  of  which  has  a  sevenfold  illustration,  at  one  point 
of  which  occurs  a  sevenfold  digression. 

Passing  from  form  to  matter,  we  may  say  that  this  book  resembles 
Ecclesiastes  in  the  fact  that  it  turns  reflection  upon  the  sum  of 
its  Matt  r-  n-  things,  and  not  merely  upon  details.  But  any  such 
Urged  conception  resemblance  is  thrown  into  the  shade  by  the  wide 
of  wisdom  difference  of  Wisdom,  both  from  Ecclesiastes  and 

.from  the  earlier  books,  in  its  conception  of  the  sum  of  things 
which  is  to  be  surveyed. 

1  The  sentences  which  make  the  texts  are  easily  distinguishable.    Whereas  the 
other  sentences  are  closely  locked  together  by  argumentative  particles,  the  text 
sentences  are,  in  the  first  two  discourses,  independent  and  hortatory  (i.  i,  i.  12) ; 
the  text  of  the  third  (vi.  12)  is  an  independent  gnomic  sentence.    In  the  last  two 
sections  the  texts  are  the  final  sentences  of  the  preceding  discourses  (last  line 
of  ix.  18,  xi.  5),  which  are  gnomic,  and  unmistakably  make  new  departures  in  the 
argument. 

2  See  pages  xxiv,  171,  in  Modern  Reader's  Bible  volume. 


'•THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON1  343 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  earlier  philosophy 
of  the  Bible  the  examination  of  external  nature  has  no  place. 
The  mass  of  unit  proverbs,  and  the  essays  arising  out  of  these, 
turn  upon  topics  of  human  life.  If  there  is  mention  of  the  dili- 
gent ant,  of  the  creatures  'little  and  wise,  of  the  stately  marchers; 
it  is  to  point  from  them  a  human  moral ;  even  the  Preacher 
describes  the  rain  clouds  pouring  their  fulness  on  the  earth,  or  the 
perpetual  drift  of  rivers  to  the  sea,  only  to  find  in  these  images  of 
fatalism.  The  exquisite  observation  which,  in  Job,  speaks  of  the 
dayspring  taking  hold  of  the  ends  of  the  earth  until  the  dull  land- 
scape has  changed  as  clay  under  the  seal,  is  the  observation  of  the 
poet ;  and  from  a  similar  source  comes  the  sympathy  with  the 
wild  ass  in  its  desert  freedom  and  the  war  horse  chafing  under 
restraint,  and  the  wealth  of  detail  which  builds  up  the  pictures  of 
behemoth  and  leviathan.  The  first  book  of  Proverbs  and  the 
prefatory  sections  of  Ecdesiasticus  deal  largely  with  external 
nature  :  but  only  as  the  works  of  the  Lord  which  are  to  be  mag- 
nified. Thus  the  son  of  Sirach  celebrates  the  clear  firmament, 
the  sun  bringing  tidings  as  he  goes,  and  the  rainbow  glory,  only  to 
assist  the  thought  that  the  Lord  made  all  these  things ;  he  enu- 
merates the  material  things  chiefly  necessary  for  man,  and  pro- 
claims that  these  are  for  good  to  the  godly,  but  for  sinners  they 
shall  be  turned  into  evil ;  he  makes  a  climax  by  the  thought  that 
this  Wisdom,  of  which  these  glories  are  a  part,  has 

,    Ecclus.  xxiv.  8 

been  commanded  to  find  a  tabernacle  in  Jacob  and 
an  inheritance  in  Israel.  It  is  only  in  the  last  of  the  Wisdom 
Books  that  we  find  the  analytic  examination  of  nature  for  its  own 
sake  which  makes  the  substance  of  modern  science  ;  and  the  pas- 
sage which  sets  forth  knowledge  of  this  kind  ends  by  claiming  it 
as  part  of  the  universal  Wisdom. 

For  himself  gave  me  an  unerring  knowledge  of  the  things  that 
are,  to  know  the  constitution  of  the  world,  and   the   operation   of 
the  elements,  the  beginning  and  end  and  middle  of  times, 
the  alternations  of  the  solstices  and  the  changes  of  sea- 
sons, the  circuits  of  years  and  the  positions  of  stars;   the  natures  of 


344  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

living  creatures  and  the  ragings  of  wild  beasts,  the  violences  of  winds 
and  the  thoughts  of  men,  the  diversities  of  plants  and  the  virtues  of 
roots :  all  things  that  are  either  secret  or  manifest  I  learned,  for  she 
that  is  the  artificer  of  all  things  taught  me,  even  Wisdom. 

History,  no  less  than  nature,  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence  from 
the  early  Books  of  Wisdom.  In  the  whole  of  Proverbs  and  Eccle- 
siastes?  and  in  four  out  of  the  five  books  of  Ecclesiasticus,  there 
ii  not  a  single  allusion  to  an  historic  event.  The  fifth  book  of 
Ecclesiasticus  is  largely  occupied  with  history ;  but  here  the  intro- 
ductory words  — 

Let  us  now  praise  famous  men  — 

prepare  us  to  expect,  what  the  subsequent  chapters  confirm,  that 
the  writer  treats  history,  as  he  treats  nature,  for  purposes  of  rhetoric 
encomium,  not  of  scientific  reflection.  On  the  other  hand,  more 
than  half  of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  consists  in  analytic  examina- 
tion of  history ;  and  its  conception  of  '  Wisdom '  is  enlarged  to 
include  the  emergence  of  providential  design  from  beneath  the 
succession  of  events. 

But  there  is  a  still  more  important  widening  of  the  field  of  view 
in  the  last  of  the  Books  of  Wisdom.  The  early  books,  ignoring 
nature  and  history,  confined  their  reflection  to  human  life  :  but  the 
life  they  surveyed  was  a  life  bounded  by  the  grave.  In  Proverbs 
and  Ecclesiasticus  there  is  nowhere  a  suggestion  of  anything  but 
this.  In  the  case  of  Ecclesiastes  I  have  drawn  attention 2  to  the 
passage  in  which  the  Preacher  for  a  single  moment  entertains  the 
thought  of  a  judgment  after  death,  only  to  fling  it  away  and 
plunge  into  a  pessimist  doubt  whether  human  life  can  have  any 
ending  different  from  that  of  the  brutes.  But  in  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon  the  starting-point  and  foundation  of  the  whole  argument 
is  the  extension  of  life  beyond  the  grave ;  an  immortality  bound 
up  with  righteousness  and  the  redress  of  wrong  is  assumed  with 

1  I  have  argued  above  (page  333)  that  Solomon's  experiment  in  i.  2  must  be 
understood  as  an  imaginary  incident ;  and  similarly  iv.  13-16  and  ix.  13-16  are,  like 
all  the  context,  general  statements. 

2  See  above,  pages  335,  340. 


'THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON'  345 

such  certainty  that  it  is  the  '  ungodly '  who  are  presented  as  ignor- 
ing it. 

This  fact   inevitably   raises   the   question :    Is  the   Wisdom  of 
Solomon  an  answer  to  Ecclesiastes  ?     In  parts  of  Reiatjon  of  WjS_ 
Wisdom  particular  phrases  and  turns  of  expression   dom  to  Ecciesias- 
seem  to  echo  thoughts  of  the  earlier  book.     The    es 
Preacher   has   cried   that  "  the  sons   of  men  are  a  chance,  and 

the  beasts  are  a  chance,  and  one  thing  befalleth 

iii.  19;  viii.  8 
them  "  ;   that  man  hath  no  "  power  over  the   day 

of  death,  and  there  is  no  discharge  in  that  war."     The  ungodly 

of  the  later  book  reflect  that  by  mere  chance  they 

were  born,  and  hereafter  they  will   be  as  though  1! 

they  had  never  been,  and  none  was  ever  known  that  gave  release 

from  Hades.     In  Ecclesiastes : 

The  dead  know  not  anything,  neither  have  they  any  more      ix.  5,  6 
a  reward;   for  the  memory  of  them  is  forgotten.     As  well 
their  love  as  their  hatred  and  their  envy  is  now  perished; 
neither  have  they  any  more  a  portion  for  ever  in  anything 
that  is  done  under  the  sun. 

The  same  strain  is  heard  in  Wisdom : 

And  our  name  shall  be  forgotten  in  time,  and  no  man       il.  4 
shall  remember  our  works;   and  our  life  shall  pass  away 
as  the  traces  of  a  cloud,  and  shall  be  scattered  as  is  a  mist. 

One  of  the  few  positive  thoughts  of  the  Preacher  is  that  Wisdom 
excelleth  folly  as  far  as  light  excelleth   darkness :   and 

ii    13 

the  later  book  finds  a  climax  for  its  panegyric  on  Wisdom 
in  the  reflection  — 

Being  compared  with  light  she  is  found  to  be  before  it;       vii.  29 
for   to   the   light   of  day  succeedeth    night,   but   against 
wisdom  evil  doth  not  prevail. 

Above  all,  the  pessimism  of  Ecclesiastes  reflects  that  "  the  righteous, 
and  the  wise,  and  their  works,  are  in  the  hand  of  God  "  :      ix.  i 
that  they  know  not  what  fortune  he  will  bestow  upon  them  and 


346  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY   OR    WISDOM 

are  powerless  to  influence  it.  The  phrase  seems  to  be  caught  up 
by  the  optimist  thinker  — 

ill.  x  The  souls  of  the  righteous  are  in  the  hand  of  God,  and  no  torment 

shall  touch  them  — 

and  this  is  his  foundation  for  a  picture  of  goodness  triumphant. 
Such  parallelisms  are  insufficient  to  prove  anything  as  to  the  inten- 
tion of  the  writer ;  but  they  certainly  serve  as  an  enhancement 
to  the  literary  interest  of  the  reader. 

When  we  consider  the  matter  and  general  argument  of  Wisdom 
there  is  more  ground  for  considering  it  a  veiled  answer  to  Ecclesi- 
astes.  This  will  appear  as  I  proceed  to  review  the  several  dis- 
courses. I  may  here,  however,  premise,  that  the  suggestion  is  not 
of  any  such  antagonism  between  the  two  books  as  would  imply 
that  one  was  right  and  the  other  wrong.  The  exact  attitude  of 
Wisdom  to  Ecclesiastes  seems  to  me  to  be  that  of  St.  Peter  to 
St.  Paul  when  the  former  says  : 

n  Peter         In  all  his  epistles  .  .  .  are  some  things  hard  to  be  understood,  which 
iii.  16        the  ignorant  and  unstedfast  wrest,  as  they  do  also  the  other  scriptures, 
unto  their  own  destruction. 

No  argument  of  Ecclesiastes  is  in  Wisdom  cited  and  attacked  ;  but 
the  second  discourse  undoubtedly  presents  the  ignorant  and  unsted- 
fast'  wresting '  the  Preacher's  theory  of  life  to  their  own  destruction. 

The  first  discourse  is  on  Singleness  of  Heart.  The  text  is  made 
by  the  opening  words  of  the  book. 

Love  righteousness,  ye  that  be  judges  of  the  earth, 
Think  ye  of  the  Lord  with  a  good  mind, 
And  in  singleness  of  heart  seek  ye  him. 

The  comment  on  this  text  is  brief  and  simple.     But  its  simplicity 
becomes  charged  with  keen  interest  if  we  look  upon  the  discourse 
as  glancing  indirectly  at  the  opening  essay  of  Eccle- 
siastes.    That  essay  imagined  a  great  experiment 
of  Solomon  :  how  he  would  lay  hold  on  folly,  his 
heart  yet  guiding  him  with  wisdom ;  how  he  would  heap  together 


'THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMOA"  347 

every  form  of  pleasure,  and  withhold  nothing  that  his  eyes  should 
desire,  yet  at  the  same  time  his  wisdom  should  remain  with  him. 
The  present  discourse  seems  boldly  to  pronounce  such  an  experi- 
ment impossible. 

Wisdom  will  not  enter  into  a  soul  that  deviseth  evil,  nor  dwell  in  a 
body  that  is  held  in  pledge  by  sin.  For  a  holy  spirit  of  discipline 
will  flee  deceit,  and  will  start  away  from  thoughts  that  are  without 
understanding,  and  will  be  put  to  confusion  when  unrighteousness 
hath  come  in. 

And  this  thought  is  enforced  by  enlarging  upon  the  spirit  of  the 
Lord  filling  the  world,  while  an  .ear  of  jealousy  listens  to  every 
secret  utterance. 

The  second  is  the  main  discourse  of  the  whole  series.     It  might 
well  have  for  its  title  :  Immortality  and  the  Covenant  with  Death. 
Here  is  the  point  at  which  the  opposition  between 
the  two  Books    of  Wisdom  is  most  acute.      The   Secon£  Discourse 
Preacher,  whichever  way  he  turned,  found   death 
as  an  inevitable  destiny  mocking  human  effort.     In  startling  con- 
tradiction to  this  the  very  text  of  the  present  discourse  assumes 
death  to  be  a  thing  of  human  origin. 

Court  not  death  in  the  error  of  your  life  ; 

Neither  draw  upon  yourselves  destruction  by  the  works  of  your  hands. 

All  doubt  about  the  doctrine  is  removed  by  the  first  words  of 
comment :  "  God  made  not  death."  Ecclesiastes,  with  melancholy 
iteration,  had  insisted  on  joining  man  with  the  beasts  in  regard  to 
his  end.  But  the  present  discourse  declares  that  all  the  races  of 
creatures  in  the  world  are  healthsome  by  creation,  and  that  Hades 
has  no  royal  dominion  on  earth  :  "  for  righteousness  is  immortal." 
Whence,  then,  hag  come  death  into  the  world  ?  By  invitation  of  the 
ungodly.  The  invitation  is  described  as  being  "  by  their  hands 
and  their  words."  The  ungodly  life  is  interpreted  as  a  covenant 
with  death.  The  discourse  proceeds  to  voice  this  ungodly  life  in  a 
monologue  which  starts  from  the  point  of  view  of  Ecclesiastes. 


348  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

Short  and  sorrowful  is  our  life;  and  there  is  no  healing  when  a 
man  cometh  to  his  end,  and  none  was  ever  known  that  gave  release 
from  Hades;  because  by  mere  chance  were  we  born,  and  hereafter 
we  shall  be  as  though  we  had  never  been :  because  the  breath  in  our 
nostrils  is  smoke,  and  reason  is  a  spark  kindled  by  the  beating  of 
our  heart,  which  being  extinguished  the  body  shall  be  turned  into 
ashes,  and  the  spirit  shall  be  dispersed  as  thin  air;  and  our  name 
shall  be  forgotten  in  time,  and  no  man  shall  remember  our  works; 
and  our  life  shall  pass  away  as  the  traces  of  a  cloud,  and  shall  be 
scattered  as  is  a  mist,  when  it  is  chased  by  the  beams  of  the  sun,  and 
overcome  by  the  heat  thereof.  For  our  allotted  time  is  the  passing  of 
a  shadow,  and  our  end  retreateth  not;  because  it  is  fast  sealed,  and 
none  turneth  it  back. 

Come  therefore  and  let  us  enjoy  the  good  things  that  are;  and 
let  us  use  the  creation  with  all  our  soul  as  youth's  possession.  Let 
us  fill  ourselves  with  costly  wine  and  perfumes;  and  let  no  flower 
of  spring  pass  us  by :  let  us  crown  ourselves  with  rosebuds,  before 
they  be  withered :  let  none  of  us  go  without  his  share  in  our  proud 
revelry :  everywhere  let  us  leave  tokens  of  our  mirth :  because  this 
is  our  portion,  and  our  lot  is  this. 

So  far  the  train  of  reasoning  has  corresponded  with  the  theory  of 
life  laid  down  in  Ecclesiastes.  But  now  comes  an  unexpected 
trend  of  thought.  It  will  be  recollected  that  the  Preacher's 
momentary  conception  of  a  judgment  beyond  the  grave,  and 
subsequent  lapse  into  hopelessness,  came  upon  him  when  he  con- 
templated wickedness  seated  in  the  place  of  judgment.  As  the 
present  monologue  continues,  we  find  this  wicked  oppression 
springing  naturally  out  of  the  Preacher's  own  conception  of  life. 

Let  us  oppress  the  righteous  poor ;  let  us  not  spare  the  widow,  nor 
reverence  the  hairs  of  the  old  man  gray  for  length  of  years.  But  let 
our  strength  be  to  us  a  law  of  righteousness;  for  that  which  is  weak 
is  found  to  be  of  no  service.  But  let  us  lie  in  wait  for  the  righteous 
man,  because  he  is  of  disservice  to  us,  and  is  contrary  to  our  works, 
and  upbraideth  us  with  sins  against  the  law,  and  layeth  to  our 
charge  sins  against  our  discipline.  He  professeth  to  have  knowl- 
edge of  God,  and  nameth  himself  servant  of  the  Lord.  He  became 
to  us  a  reproof  of  our  thoughts.  He  is  grievous  to  us  even  to 
behold,  because  his  life  is  unlike  other  men's,  and  his  paths  are 


'THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON"1  349 

of  strange  fashion.  We  were  accounted  of  him  as  base  metal, 
and  he  abstaineth  from  our  ways  as  from  uncleannesses.  The 
latter  end  of  the  righteous  he  calleth  happy;  and  he  vaunteth  that 
God  is  his  father.  Let  us  see  if  his  words  be  true,  and  let  us  try 
what  shall  befall  in  the  ending  of  his  life.  For  if  the  righteous  man 
is  God's  son,  he  will  uphold  him,  and  he  will  deliver  him  out  of  the 
hand  of  his  adversaries.  With  outrage  and  torture  let  us  put  him  to 
the  test,  that  we  may  learn  his  gentleness,  and  may  prove  his  patience 
under  wrong.  Let  us  condemn  him  to  a  shameful  death;  for  he 
shall  be  visited  according  to  his  words. 

The  author  breaks  in  to  say  how  these  reasoners  are  blinded  by 
wickedness  to  the  mysteries  of  God ;  and  (as  already  pointed  out) 
he  catches  at  a  phrase  of  the  Preacher  to  turn  it  to  an  opposite  use. 

The  souls  of  the  righteous  are  in  the  hand  of  God,  and  no  tor- 
ment shall  touch  them.  In  the  eyes  of  the  foolish  they  seemed 
to  have  died;  and  their  departure  was  accounted  to  be  their  hurt, 
and  their  journeying  away  from  us  to  be  their  ruin :  but  they  are  in 
peace.  For  even  if  in  the  sight  of  men  they  be  punished,  their  hope 
is  full  of  immortality;  and  having  borne  a  little  chastening,  they  shall 
receive  great  good  .  .  .  and  in  the  time  of  their  visitation  they  shall 
shine  forth,  and  as  sparks  among  stubble  they  shall  run  to  and  fro. 
They  shall  judge  nations,  and  have  dominion  over  peoples;  and  the 
Lord  shall  reign  over  them  for  evermore. 

The  picture  of  the  ungodly  reasoners  is  to  be  completed  by  a 
companion  picture  of  the  same  reasoners  beyond  the  grave.  But 
first,  with  his  tendency  to  digression,  the  author  turns  aside  to 
glance  at  the  rival  hopes  to  this  his  hope  of  immortality.  The 
substitutes  for  our  modern  conception  of  immortality  in  the  minds 
of  Old  Testament  worthies  were  two  :  length  of  days  in  this  world, 
and  the  living  over  again  in  posterity.  The  author  of  Wisdom 
strikes  at  both  these  ideas.  The  multiplying  brood  of  the  ungodly 
is  profitless  :  better  is  childlessness  with  virtue.  As  for  length  of 
days  :  it  may  well  be  that  the  life  cut  short  is  the  life  crowned. 

For  honourable  old  age  is  not  that  which  standeth  in  length  of  time, 
nor  is  its  measure  given  by  number  of  years :  but  understanding  is 
gray  hairs  unto  men,  and  an  unspotted  life  is  ripe  old  age.  .  .  .  Being 


350  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

made  perfect  in  a  little  while  he  fulfilled  long  years;  for  his  soul  was 
pleasing  unto  the  Lord :  therefore  he  hastened  him  away  out  of  the 
midst  of  wickedness. 

And  now  the  dramatic  monologue  is  again  called  into  requisition 
to  paint  the  amazement  of  the  ungodly,  risen  from  a  dishonoured 
sojourn  among  the  dead,  to  behold  the  righteous  standing  in  great 
boldness  before  those  who  afflicted  him. 

This  was  he  whom  aforetime  we  had  in  derision,  and  made  a 
parable  of  reproach :  we  fools  accounted  his  life  madness,  and  his 
end  without  honour:  how  was  he  numbered  among  sons  of  God? 
and  how  is  his  lot  among  saints?  Verily  we  went  astray  from  the 
way  of  truth,  and  the  light  of  righteousness  shined  not  for  us,  and 
the  sun  rose  not  for  us.  We  took  our  fill  of  the  paths  of  lawlessness 
and  destruction,  and  we  journeyed  through  trackless  deserts,  but  the 
way  of  the  Lord  we  knew  not.  What  did  our  arrogancy  profit  us? 
And  what  good  have  riches  and  vaunting  brought  us?  Those  things 
all  passed  away  as  a  shadow,  and  as  a  message  that  runneth  by :  as 
a  ship  passing  through  the  billowy  water,  whereof,  when  it  is  gone 
by,  there  is  no  trace  to  be  found,  neither  pathway  of  its  keel  in  the 
billows :  or  as  when  a  bird  flieth  through  the  air,  no  token  of  her 
passage  is  found,  but  the  light  wind,  lashed  with  the  stroke  of 
her  pinions,  and  rent  asunder  with  the  violent  rush  of  the  moving 
wings,  is  passed  through,  and  afterwards  no  sign  of  her  coming  is 
found  therein :  or  as  when  an  arrow  is  shot  at  a  mark,  the  air  dis- 
parted closeth  up  again  immediately,  so  that  men  know  not  where 
it  passed  through :  so  we  also,  as  soon  as  we  were  born,  ceased  to 
be;  and  of  virtue  we  had  no  sign  to  shew,  but  in  our  wickedness  we 
were  utterly  consumed. 

The  author  speaks  in  person  to  second  this  despair  :  the  hope  of 
the  ungodly  is  as  smoke  and  vanishing  foam,  while  the  righteous 
live  for  ever.  Then  the  discourse  reaches  a  peroration  in  a  picture 
of  the  universe  united  to  war  against  the  enemies  of  good. 

He  shall  take  his  jealousy  as  complete  armour,  and  shall  make  the 
whole  creation  his  weapons  for  vengeance  on  his  enemies :  he  shall 
put  on  righteousness  as  a  breastplate,  and  shall  array  himself  with 
judgement  unfeigned  as  with  a  helmet;  he  shall  take  holiness  as  an 
invincible  shield,  and  he  shall  sharpen  stern  wrath  for  a  sword.  And 


'•THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON1  351 

the  world  shall  go  forth  with  him  to  fight  against  his  insensate  foes. 
Shafts  of  lightning  shall  fly  with  true  aim,  and  from  the  clouds,  as 
from  a  well  drawn  bow,  shall  they  leap  to  the  mark.  And  as  from 
an  engine  of  war  shall  be  hurled  hailstones  full  of  wrath ;  the  water 
of  the  sea  shall  be  angered  against  them,  and  rivers  shall  sternly  over- 
whelm them;  a  mighty  blast  shall  encounter  them,  and  as  a  tem- 
pest shall  it  winnow  them  away :  and  so  shall  lawlessness  make 
all  the  land  desolate,  and  their  evil  doing  shall  overturn  the  thrones 
of  princes. 

An  appeal  to  Kings,  as  those  whose  responsibility  is  greater 
than  that  of  lowly  men,  closes  the  second  discourse,  and  prepares 
for  the  text  of  the  third,  that  Wisdom  is  found  of 
her  seekers,  nay,  forestalleth  them  by  making  her-     . ird  . iscourse 

J  '  *  VI.  I2-12C 

self  first  known.  This  discourse  is  devoted  to  the 
personality  of  King  Solomon  :  a  personality  which,  as  in  Ecclesi- 
astes,  is  dropped  when  its  purpose  has  been  served.  Here  in  full 
distinctness  we  have  a  king  addressing  his  brother  kings  ;  and  a  very 
different  character  is  painted  from  that  of  the  Preacher's  Solomon. 
The  wisest  of  men  tells  how  he  was  mortal,  like  all  others ;  moulded, 
like  all  others,  in  the  womb ;  how  he  was  born,  and  drew  in  the 
common  air,  and  fell  upon  the  kindred  earth,  his  first  voice  a  wail : 
for  all  men  have  one  entrance  into  life,  and  a  like  departure.  For 
this  cause  he  had  to  pray  for  the  understanding  that  has  been 
given  to  him.  And  this  understanding  he  preferred  before  sceptres 
and  thrones,  and  riches,  and  health,  and  comeliness,  and  all  other 
good  things  :  but  with  this  Wisdom  came  to  him  all  other  good 
things,  for  she  is  the  mother  and  artificer  of  them  all.  Then  fol- 
lows the  famous  panegyric. 

For  there  is  in  her  a  spirit  quick  of  understanding,  holy,  alone  in 
kind,  manifold,  subtil,  freely  moving,  clear  in  utterance,  unpolluted, 
distinct,  unharmed,  loving  what  is  good,  keen,  unhindered,  beneficent, 
loving  toward  man,  stedfast,  sure,  free  from  care,  all-powerful,  all- 
surveying,  and  penetrating  through  all  spirits  that  are  quick  of  under- 
standing, pure,  most  subtil :  for  wisdom  is  more  mobile  than  any 
motion;  yea,  she  pervadeth  and  penetrateth  all  things  by  reason  of 
her  pureness.  For  she  is  a  breath  of  the  power  of  God,  and  a  clear 


352  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

effluence  of  the  glory  of  the  Almighty;  therefore  can  nothing  defiled 
find  entrance  into  her.  For  she  is  an  effulgence  from  everlasting 
light,  and  an  unspotted  mirror  of  the  working  of  God,  and  an  image 
of  his  goodness.  And  she,  being  one,  hath  power  to  do  all  things; 
and,  remaining  in  herself,  reneweth  all  things :  and  from  generation 
to  generation  passing  into  holy  souls  she  maketh  men  friends  of  God 
and  prophets.  For  nothing  doth  God  love  save  him  that  dwelleth 
with  wisdom.  For  she  is  fairer  than  the  sun,  and  above  all  the  con- 
stellations of  the  stars  :  being  compared  with  light,  she  is  found  to  be 
before  it;  for  to  the  light  of  day  succeedeth  night,  but  against  wis- 
dom evil  doth  not  prevail;  but  she  reacheth  from  one  end  of  the 
world  to  the  other  with  full  strength,  and  ordereth  all  things  gra- 
ciously. 

Such  Wisdom  Solomon  tells  how  he  loved  from  his  youth,  and 
sought  to  take  her  for  his  bride ;  with  her  as  his  spouse  he  would 
gain  glory  among  the  multitudes  and  honour  in  the  sight  of  the 
elders ;  because  of  her  he  would  have  immortality,  and  leave 
behind  an  eternal  memory;  he  will  govern  people  and  be 
courageous  in  war. 

When  I  am  come  into  my  house,  I  shall  find  rest  with  her;  for 
converse  with  her  hath  no  bitterness,  and  to  live  with  her  hath  no 
pain,  but  gladness  and  joy. 

Accordingly  he  pleaded  with  the  Lord,  that  he  would  send  down 

Wisdom  out  of  the  holy  heavens  and  from  the  throne  of  his  glory  : 
and  'thus  the  historic  prayer  of  Gibeon  is  expanded 
into  an  elaborate  appeal.  The  concluding  part  of 

this  prayer  makes  the  transition  to  the  important  discourses  which 

are  to  follow. 

For  a  corruptible  body  weigheth  down  the  soul,  and  the  earthly 
frame  lieth  heavy  on  a  mind  that  is  full  of  cares.  And  hardly  do  we 
divine  the  things  that  are  on  earth,  and  the  things  that  are  close  at 
hand  we  find  with  labour;  but  the  things  that  are  in  the  heavens  who 
ever  yet  traced  out?  And  who  ever  gained  knowledge  of  thy  counsel, 
except  thou  gavest  wisdom,  and  sentest  thy  holy  spirit  from  on  high? 
And  it  was  thus  that  the  ways  of  them  which  are  on  earth  were 
corrected,  and  men  were  taught  the  things  that  are  pleasing  unto 
thee :  and  through  wisdom  were  they  saved. 


•THE  WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON1  353 

These  last  words  become  the  text  on  which  the  discourse  that 
is  to  follow  is  founded. 

Through  wisdom  were  they  saved. 

This  fourth  discourse  occupies  a  transitional  position  in  the  train 
of  thought  which  connects  the  last  three  sections  of  the  book. 

Without  attempting  to  analyse  all  the  shades  of 

L  ,.     xi.  j    Fourth  Discourse 

meaning  and  mystic  senses  that  attach  to  the  word  x  ^ 

'  wisdom,'  it  may  be  said  that  they  centre  around 
two  main  usages,  which  may  be  broadly  distinguished  as  subjective 
and  objective  :  the  wisdom  which  an  individual,  from  whatever 
source,  receives  into  himself,  and  by  which  he  guides  his  actions, 
and  again  the  wisdom  which  underlies  the  sum  of  things.  Of 
course  the  two  senses  are  closely  related  :  an  individual  is  wise  in 
personal  wisdom  when  he  brings  himself  into  conformity  with  the 
Divine  order  and  harmony.  The  final  discourse  will,  without 
using  the  word,1  expound  wisdom  in  the  objective  sense  as  seen  in 
history.  The  third  discourse  has  ended  with  Solomon's  prayer  for 
personal  wisdom.  This  section  which  intervenes  deals  with  his- 
tory, but  mainly  with  its  prominent  individuals ;  and  its  use  of  the 
term  '  wisdom '  in  an  interesting  manner  hovers  between  the  two 
senses  of  the  word.  In  the  opening  reference  to  Adam  — 

Wisdom  guarded  to  the  end  the  first  formed  father  of  the  world, 
that  was  created  alone,  and  delivered  him  out  of  his  own  transgres- 
sion, and  gave  him  strength  to  get  dominion  over  all  things  — 

the  first  clause  seems  to  speak  of  external  guidance,  the  rest  of 
self-discipline.  It  is  from  wisdom  in  the  latter  sense  that  Cain 
'  fell  away '  in  his  anger ;  but  it  must  be  wisdom  as  providential 
guidance  that  saved  the  world  from  the  flood,  guiding  the  right- 
eous man's  course  by  a  poor  piece  of  wood.  Providence  must  be 
the  wisdom  that  "  knew  the  righteous  man,"  Abraham  :  but  wis- 
dom in  the  other  sense  "  preserved  him  blameless  "  unto  God,  and 
kept  him  strong  when  his  heart  yearned  toward  his  child.  Exter- 

1  It  occurs  only  once  (xiv.  5)  in  a  subordinate  phrase. 


354  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

nal  wisdom  saved  Lot,  but  it  must  be  the  wisdom  within  that  Lot's 
wife  '  passed  by,'  and  became  a  monument  of  folly.  It  is  provi- 
dential wisdom  that  guided  the  fugitive  Jacob,  and  still  more 
clearly  the  same  wisdom  which  went  down  into  the  dungeon  with 
Joseph,  and  left  him  not  till  she  brought  him  the  sceptre  of  a  king- 
dom. When  Moses  is  reached,  the  two  senses  seem  again  to 
interlace : 

Wisdom  delivered  a  holy  people  and  a  blameless  seed  from  a  nation 
of  oppressors.  She  entered  into  the  soul  of  a  servant  of  the  Lord, 
and  withstood  terrible  kings  in  wonders  and  signs. 

But  as  the  details  of  the  deliverance  are  reviewed  the  thought  is 
more  and  more  of  providential  guidance,  until  we  find  ourselves 
in  the  analysis  of  history  that  constitutes  the  final  discourse. 

The  fifth  and  last  section,  in  bulk  equal  to  one  half  the  book, 
branches  off  at  the  words  : 

For  by  what  things  their  foes  -were  punished, 
By  these  they  in  their  need  were  benefited. 

This  text  conveys  clearly  the  argument  of  the  whole  discourse ; 
though  (as  remarked  above1)  at  one  part  of  it  there  occurs  a 
Fifth  Dis-  chain  of  digressions,  carrying  our  thoughts  from 

course  one  to  another  of  kindred  topics,  until  the  original 

**•  5~xi:c  argument  is  recovered  and  maintained  to  the  close. 

The  text  embodies  a  principle  of  providential  government,  and 
the  discourse  elaborately  supports  it  with  seven  illustrations  con- 
nected with  the  deliverance  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt. 

The  first  of  the  'things'  illustrating  the  principle  is  thirst. 
For  the  Egyptians  the  inexhaustible  Nile  turned  to  blood  —  meet 
judgment  on  those  who  had  shed  the  blood  of  infants  :  while  for 
Israel  the  desert  rock  poured  out  abundant  streams,  Israel  having 
suffered  thirst  just  enough  to  understand  the  torment  of  their 
enemies,  and  see  the  difference  between  fatherly  admonition  and 
the  wrath  of  a  stern  king. 

1  Page  342. 


'THE   WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON'  355 

It  is  as  the  writer  is  commencing  a  second  illustration  that  the 
series  of  digressions  begins.     One  of  these  digressions  puts  the 
principle  of  providential  government  which  in  sec-   The  Chain 
ular  literature  is  called  nemesis  :  by  what  things  a  Digressions 
man  sinneth  by  these  he  is  punished.    The  example  "•  I6~xvi- l 
that  suggests  it  is  the  plague  of  vermin  sent  upon  the  Egyptians, 
who  are  vermin  worshippers.     This  leads  to  a  further  argument 

on   the  forbearance  of  God  in   his  judgments  — 

xi.  ai-xii 

making  the  judgment  assume  a  form  that  is  equiv- 
alent to  admonition,  and  convicting  little  by  little  so  as  to  give  a 
place  for  repentance  :    this  is  the  forbearance  of  strength,  and  of 
one  who  loves  everything  that  he  has  made.     Another  digression 
is  on  the  folly  of  idolatry.     There  are  degrees  in 

that  folly :   least   blamable  are  those  who  mistake  *"!'  1~xiT'  " 
'  and  xv 

the  beautiful  works  of  nature  for  God ;  next  mis- 
erable are  those  who  rest  their  hopes  in  dead  things  like  gold  or 
silver ;  but  the  furthest  gone  in  folly  are  the  Egyptians  in  their 
deifying  creatures  hateful  and  void  of  beauty.  The  scorn  of  the 
wise  man  closely  follows  the  scorn  of  the  prophet,  in  fancying  a 
woodcutter  cutting  down  a  tree  and  carefully  fashioning  the  best 
wood  into  useful  vessels,  then  warming  food  with  the  refuse,  and 
then  taking  the  very  refuse  that  is  good  for  nothing  and  carving  it 
in  an  idle  hour  into  a  god. 

For  health  he  calleth  upon  that  which  is  weak,  and  for  life  he 
beseecheth  that  which  is  dead,  and  for  aid  he  supplicateth  that 
which  hath  least  experience,  and  for  a  good  journey  that  which  can- 
not so  much  as  move  a  step,  and  for  gaining  and  getting  and  good 
success  of  his  hands  he  asketh  ability  of  that  which  with  its  hands 
is  most  unable.  Again,  one  preparing  to  sail,  and  about  to  journey 
over  raging  waves,  calleth  upon  a  piece  of  wood  more  rotten  than 
the  vessel  that  carrieth  him. 

The  folly  of  idolatry  leads  naturally  to  the  question  of  its  origin. 

The  writer  insists  that  idolatry  is  a  corruption,  and  not 

one  of  the  things  that  have  been  from  the  beginning.     It 

may  have  begun  in  the  image  of  a  lost  child,  or  an  absent  king, 


356  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

coming  in  time  to  be  honoured  with  rites  and  worship,  until  stocks 
and  stones  have  become  invested  with  the  incommunicable  Name. 
With  such  corruption  of  worship  has  crept  in  corruption  of 
morals — frantic  revels,  tumult,  perjury,  defiling  of  souls,  confu- 
sion of  sex,  adultery,  and  wantonness  :  they  live  in  a  great  war  of 
ignorance,  and  that  multitude  of  evils  they  call  peace. 

The  digressions  have  occupied  half  of  the  whole  discourse  ;  the 
original  argument  is  resumed  with  a  second  illustration  of  things 
which  were  judgments  on  the  wicked  turning  to  mercies 
on  God's  people.  This  is  connected  with  appetite :  the 
plague  of  vermin  caused  the  Egyptians  to  loathe  their  necessary 
food,  but  to  the  Israelites  were  sent  quails  of  dainty  flavour  when 
their  appetite  had  become  keen  in  the  desert.  A  third  illustration 
is  founded  on  noxious  bites  :  the  bites  of  locusts  and  flies  destroyed 
without  healing  the  men  of  Egypt ;  whereas  the  rage  of  crooked 
serpents  did  but  admonish  God's  people  to  heed  his  oracles,  and 
then  salvation  was  found  for  them,  not  indeed  from  that  which 
they  gazed  upon,  but  from  the  Healer  of  all,  who  has  authority 
over  life  and  death.  Once  more,  there  is  a  contrast  between  the 
rain  of  hail  and  showers  inexorable  mingling  with  fire  which 
destroyed  the  fruits  of  Egypt,  and  the  rain  of  angels'  bread  from 
heaven  on  God's  people  in  the  wilderness.  The  contrast  is  worked 
out  with  minute  subtlety.  The  elements  strained  their  force 
against  the  unrighteous,  the  fire  of  destruction  burning  in  the 
rain  and  flashing  in  the  hail;  while  the  same  fire  slackened  in 
behalf  of  the  Israelites,  and,  like  the  fire  of  a  domestic  hearth, 
tempered  the  food  to  every  taste.  Yet  the  manna  which  the 
fire  had  thus  not  marred  melted  in  the  first  faint  sunbeam,  teach- 
ing men  to  rise  early  to  give  thanks. 

The  fifth  example  gives  great  scope  for  the  feature  of  style 
which  I  have  called  analytic  imagination.  It  is  the  plague  of 
darkness. 

When  lawless  men  had  supposed  that  they  held  a  holy  nation  in 
their  power,  they  themselves,  prisoners  of  darkness,  and  bound  in 
the  fetters  of  a  long  night,  close  kept  beneath  their  roofs,  lay  exiled 


'THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON'  357 

from  the  eternal  providence.  For  while  they  thought  that  they  were 
unseen  in  their  secret  sins,  they  were  sundered  one  from  another  by 
a  dark  curtain  of  forgetfulness,  stricken  with  terrible  awe,  and  sore 
troubled  by  spectral  forms.  For  neither  did  the  dark  recesses  that 
held  them  guard  them  from  fears,  but  sounds  rushing  down  rang 
around  them,  and  phantoms  appeared,  cheerless  with  unsmiling 
faces.  And  no  force  of  fire  prevailed  to  give  them  light,  neither  were 
the  brightest  flames  of  the  stars  strong  enough  to  illumine  that 
gloomy  night :  but  only  there  appeared  to  them  the  glimmering  of  a 
fire  self-kindled,  full  of  fear;  and  in  terror  they  deemed  the  things 
which  they  saw  to  be  worse  than  that  sight,  on  which  they  could  not 
gaze.  And  they  lay  helpless,  made  the  sport  of  magic  art,  and  a 
shameful  rebuke  of  their  vaunts  of  understanding:  for  they  that 
promised  to  drive  away  terrors  and  troublings  from  a  sick  soul,  these 
were  themselves  sick  with  a  ludicrous  fearfulness:  for  even  if  no 
troublous  thing  affrighted  them,  yet,  scared  with  the  creepings  of 
vermin  and  hissings  of  serpents,  they  perished  for  very  trem- 
bling, refusing  even  to  look  on  the  air,  which  could  on  no  side  be 
escaped.  .  .  .  All  through  the  night  which  was  powerless  indeed, 
and  which  came  upon  them  out  of  the  recesses  of  powerless  Hades, 
all  sleeping  the  same  sleep,  now  were  haunted  with  monstrous  appa- 
ritions, and  now  were  paralysed  by  their  souls'  surrendering;  for 
fear  sudden  and  unlooked  for  came  upon  them.  So  then  every  man, 
whosoever  it  might  be,  sinking  down  in  his  place,  was  kept  in  ward 
shut  up  in  that  prison  which  was  barred  not  with  iron :  for  whether 
he  were  a  husbandman,  or  a  shepherd,  or  a  labourer  whose  toils 
were  in  the  wilderness,  he  was  overtaken,  and  endured  that  inevitable 
necessity,  for  with  one  chain  of  darkness  were  they  all  bound. 
Whether  there  were  a  whistling  wind,  or  a  melodious  noise  of  birds 
among  the  spreading  branches,  or  a  measured  fall  of  water  running 
violently,  or  a  harsh  crashing  of  rocks  hurled  down,  or  the  swift 
course  of  animals  bounding  along  unseen,  or  the  voice  of  wild  beasts 
harshly  roaring,  or  an  echo  rebounding  from  the  hollows  of  the 
mountains,  all  these  things  paralysed  them  with  terror.  For  the 
whole  world  beside  was  enlightened  with  'clear  light,  and  was  occu- 
pied with  unhindered  works;  while  over  them  alone  was  spread  a 
heavy  night,  an  image  of  the  darkness  that  should  afterward  receive 
them;  but  yet  heavier  than  darkness  were  they  unto  themselves. 

With   such   supernatural   darkness   is   contrasted  the  great  light 
enjoyed  all  the  while  by  the  holy  ones ;  and  further,  the  burning 


358  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

pillar  of  fire  sent  as  convoy  of  their  unknown  journey,  and  kindly 
sun  for  their  proud  exile. 

The  sixth  illustration  reverses  the  order  of  the  contrast.  First 
is  mentioned  the  night  of  deliverance  to  the  chosen  people,  when 
sacrifice  was  being  offered  in  secret,  and  with  one  consent  they 
took  upon  themselves  the  covenant  of  Divine  law.  The  fathers 
were  already  leading  the  sacred  songs  of  praise  when  there  sounded 
back  in  discord  the  cry  of  the  stricken  enemy. 

For  while  peaceful  silence  enwrapped  all  things,  and  night  in  her 
own  swiftness  was  in  mid  course,  thine  all-powerful  word  leaped 
from  heaven  out  of  the  royal  throne,  a  stern  warrior,  into  the  midst 
of  the  doomed  land,  bearing  as  a  sharp  sword  thine  unfeigned  com- 
mandment; and  standing  it  filled  all  things  with  death ;  and  while 
it  touched  the  heaven  it  trod  upon  the  earth. 

And  a  picture  follows  of  the  dead  thrown  here  and  there  in  the 
tossings  of  troubled  dreams  which  showed  to  each  his  doom  ere 
the  death  fell  on  him. 

Finally,  death  itself  is  amongst  the  things  which  are  judgments 
alike  and  benefits.  It  befell  the  righteous  to  make  trial  of  death, 
but  only  as  a  brief  calamity ;  for  the  blameless  Phinehas,  bringing 
the  weapons  of  his  ministry,  confronted  the  advancing  wrath,  and 
cut  off  the  way  to  the  living.  But  upon  the  ungodly  came  wrath 
without  mercy,  who  by  a  counsel  of  folly  pursued  the  fugitives, 
and  themselves  met  with  strange  death,  creation  fashioning  itself 
anew,  and  land  rising  out  of  the  sea  for  the  salvation  of  the  fugi- 
tives. In  the  deliverance  Israel  thus  celebrated,  and  the  plagues 
of  Egypt  fresh  in  their  memory,  and  the  gifts  of  ambrosial  food 
they  were  soon  to  receive,  might  they  see  all  the  elements,  inter- 
changing like  the  notes  of  a  psaltery,  conspire  to  magnify  the 
people  of  God. 

So  ends  the  last  of  the  Scriptural  Books  of  Wisdom.  Through- 
out its  whole  course  it  has  returned  to  the  tone  of  serene  contem- 
plation, broken  only  by  adoration,  which  had  distinguished  all 
.Wisdom  literature  except  Ecclesiastes.  The  middle  discourse  of 


'THE    WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON1  359 

the  series  has  vindicated  Solomon  from  the  morbid  experiment 
imagined  for  him  by  the  Preacher,  and  portrayed  in  his  personality 
individual  wisdom  in  its  most  kingly  form.  The  earlier  discourses 
have  set  over  against  the  pessimist  conception  of  a  life  bounded 
by  death  the  optimism  that  is  made  by  extending  the  vision  into 
a  future  beyond  the  grave  ;  while,  in  place  of  the  Preacher's  con- 
cluding strain  of  clinging  to  happiness,  the  opening  note  of  the 
present  book  is,  Love  righteousness.  And  as  these  discourses 
have  dealt  with  the  future,  so  the  concluding  discourses  extend 
the  field  of  Wisdom  to  include  the  past,  and  the  history  of  God's 
people  has  been  presented  as  an  ordered  scheme  of  providence. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Philosophy  of  the  Bible  takes  its  rise 
from  a  floating  literature  of  proverbs.     The  form  of  these  germ 

proverbs  is  fixed  to  that  of  a  single  couplet ;  accordingly 
i  1-1  •  f  i  Review 

the  couplet  is  the  meeting  point  of  verse  and  prose. 

Proverb  literature  develops  on  the  one  side  into  the  poetic  forms 
of  the  epigram  and  the  sonnet,  on  the  other  side  it  travels  prose- 
wards  in  maxims  and  essays  ;  but  in  either  case  Biblical  Phi- 
losophy always  seeks  artistic  form,  and  it  is  just  where  the  thought 
is  most  elaborate  that  the  most  extended  dramatic  monologues 
are  found,  or  the  most  brilliant  rhetorical  encomia  and  pictures. 
In  matter  and  spirit  this  Biblical  Philosophy  is  '  Wisdom  ' :  reflec- 
tion associates  itself  with  practical  life.  In  the  earlier  works 
reflection  has  been  directed  upon  life  in  its  separate  parts,  and 
miscellanies  of  practical  wisdom  are  the  result :  the  totality  of 
things  is  not  a  subject  for  theorising  upon,  but  is  approached  with 
awe,  and  worshipped  as  a  personified  Wisdom.  With  Ecclesiastes 
we  reach  the  point  at  which  analysis  has  turned  itself  upon  the 
sum  of  things,  and  there  ensues  a  strange  divorce  between  theory 
and  practice  :  while  the  old  miscellaneous  maxims  still  appear,  we 
now  hear  of  a  whole  duty  of  man,  and  this  is  presented  as  a  rev- 
erent happiness ;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  theory  of  life  has 
started  only  to  break  down  in  negations,  and  in  despair  of  all  but 
God,  But  in  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  Philosophy  has  recovered 


360  BIBLICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OR    WISDOM 

its  balance,  theoretical  and  practical  are  harmonised.  The  prin- 
ciple underlying  the  All  —  an  All  which  takes  in  past,  present,  and 
future  —  has  again  become  Wisdom,  and  is  again  contemplated 
with  rapture ;  detailed  maxims  of  practical  life  have  disappeared, 
except  so  far  as  they  are  items  in  a  universal  system.  But  this 
final  achievement  of  philosophic  reflection  has  been  brought  about 
by  drawing  within  the  field  of  thought  something  which  has  not 
been  obtained  from  philosophy :  it  is  the  tacit  assumption  of  a 
future  world  that  has  reversed  the  conclusions  of  Ecclesiastes. 
And  when  this  final  stage  of  Wisdom  literature  has  been  reached, 
the  conception  of  '  Wisdom '  itself  has  become  so  deep  and  so 
many-sided  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  discuss  it  without 
trenching  upon  the  deepest  mysteries  of  Theology. 


BOOK  SIXTH 

BIBLICAL   LITERATURE   OF   PROPHECY 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVI.  FORMS  OF  PROPHETIC  LITERATURE     ....    363 

XVII.  FORMS  OF  PROPHETIC  LITERATURE:  THE  DOOM  SONG    390 

XVIII.  FORMS  OF  PROPHETIC  LITERATURE:  THE  RHAPSODY  .    404 

XIX.  THE  RHAPSODY  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED  '  [Isa.  xl-lxvi]  .  435 

XX.  THE  WORKS  OF  THE  PROPHETS 457 


CHAPTER   XVI 

FORMS   OF   PROPHETIC   LITERATURE 

WE  commence  in  this  chapter  another  of  the  grand  depart- 
ments of  Biblical  literature  ;  and  our  first  difficulty  is  its  name  — 
Prophecy.  By  one  of  those  silent  changes  in  the  Propliec  as  a 
signification  of  words,  which  are  brought  about  by  department  of 
the  wear  and  tear  of  ordinary  speech,  this  word  uterature 
'  Prophecy '  has  narrowed  itself,  in  common  parlance,  to  the  sense 
of  '  prediction ' ;  and  there  are  many  readers  of  the  Bible  to 
whom  the  term  suggests  nothing  more  than  the  foretelling  of  the 
future.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  the  Hebrew  prophets  dealt  with 
the  future,  as  they  dealt  with  the  present  and  the  past.  But  the 
reference  to  the  future  time  is  not  the  sole,  nor  even  the  chief, 
function  of  the  literature  we  are  about  to  survey.  The  pro-  in 
prophecy  is  not  the  pro-  that  means  '  before '  but  rather  the  pro- 
that  means  '  forth ' :  Prophecy  is  a  forth-pouring  or  out-pouring 
of  discourse.  That  such  out-pouring  of  discourse  belongs,  not 
only  to  the  thing  described,  but  also  to  the  signification  of  the 
English  word,  is  powerfully  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  a  father 
of  the  Anglican  Church  and  great  master  of  English  prose,  writing 
in  the  seventeenth  century  a  work  in  which  he  was  to  plead  for 
the  freedom  of  the  English  pulpit,  gave  to  it  the  title  :  '  Liberty  of 
Prophesying.'  The  true  distinction  of  this  department  of  Biblical 
literature  lies  in  its  presenting  itself  as  the  channel  of  an  immediate 
Divine  message  :  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  "  is  con-  Forms  of  Pro- 
tained  explicitly  or  implicitly  in  every  utterance  of  Phetic  Literature 
the  prophets.  The  '  prophet '  is  thus  an  '  interpreter '  for  God : 

363 


364  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

such  is  the  sense  of  the  Greek  word  which  has  given  us  the 
English  word/n^fe//  and  that  such  is  the  force  of  the  Hebrew 
word  it  translates  is  powerfully  suggested  by  such  a  passage  as 
Exodus  vii.  i :  "  See  I  have  made  thee  [Moses]  a  god  to  Pharaoh, 
and  Aaron  shall  be  thy  prophet."  From  this  it  follows  that  the 
essential  distinction  of  Prophecy  belongs  to  its  spirit  and  matter : 
what  more  of  description  is  needed  will  be  given  by  distinguish- 
ing the  various  forms  in  which  the  prophetic  matter  can  be 
conveyed. 

The  simplest  form  of  Prophecy,  and  the  form  of  most  frequent 
occurrence,  is  the  Prophetic  Discourse.  If  we  call  this  the  coun- 
The  Prophetic  terpart  of  the  modern  Sermon,  we  must  remember 
Discourse  at  the  same  time  that,  in  a  theocracy,  the  distinc- 

tion of  religion  and  politics  vanishes,  the  sermon  and  the  political 
harangue  become  one  and  the  same.  The  Divine  message  essen- 
tial to  Prophecy  is  not  to  be  understood  as  the  Discourse  itself, 
but  rather,  in  theory  at  least,  as  the  subject  or  text  of  the  Dis- 
course, which  all  the  rest  is  to  explain  or  enforce.  In  this  con- 
nection it  is  important  to  note  a  word  which  even  in  the  Bible 
(The  word  itself  seems  to  be  used  as  a  technical  term  :  —  the 

'  Burden ')  word  translated  '  Burden,'  in  the  titles  to  chapters 

of  Prophecy,  and  in  the  text  itself.1  It  would  appear  that  this 
was  understood  of  the  actual  Divine  message,  though  the  term  was 
abused  by  false  prophets  as  a  name  under  which  to  clothe  their 
own  imaginings. 

Jeremiah  Behold,  I  am  against  them  that  prophesy  lying  dreams,  saith  the 
xxm-  3*  LORD,  and  do  tell  them,  and  cause  my  people  to  err  by  their  lies, 
and  by  their  vain  boasting:  yet  I  sent  them  not,  nor  commanded 
them ;  neither  shall  they  profit  this  people  at  all,  saith  the  LORD. 
And  when  this  people,  or  the  prophet,  or  a  priest,  shall  ask  thee, 
saying,  What  is  the  burden  of  the  LORD?  then  shalt  thou  say  unto 
them,  What  burden !  I  will  cast  you  off,  saith  the  LORD.  And  as  for 
the  prophet,  and  the  priest,  and  the  people,  that  shall  say,  The  bur- 

l  The  word  substituted  by  R.V.  (in  titles,  but  not  in  the  text)  is  '  Oracles ' :  this 
explains  the  usage  by  a  parallel  term  in  secular  literatures. 


THE  PROPHETIC  DISCOURSE  365 

den  of  the  LORD,  I  will  even  punish  that  man  and  his  house.  Thus 
shall  ye  say  every  one  to  his  neighbour,  and  every  one  to  his  brother, 
What  hath  the  LORD  answered?  and,  What  hath  the  LORD  spoken? 
And  the  burden  of  the  LORD  shall  ye  mention  no  more :  for  every 
man's  own  word  is  his  burden,  and  ye  pervert  the  words  of  the  living 
God,  of  the  LORD  of  hosts  our  God. 

In  the  Prophetic  Discourses  as  they  have  reached  us,  however, 
the  text  and  recommendatory  matter  seem  fused  together  without 
distinction.  Such  merging  of  a  Divine  message  in  the  exhortations 
enforcing  it  may  be  illustrated  from  that  which  is  the  prototype 
of  all  Prophetic  Discourses,  —  the  Ten  Commandments.  The 
versions  of  the  Ten  Commandments  in  Exodus  and  in  Deuter- 
onomy, though  each  is  introduced  with  the  formula,  "The  Lord 
spake  .  .  .  saying,"  yet  differ,  not  verbally  only,  but  in  substance ; 
in  particular,  the  reason  assigned  for  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath 
is  entirely  different  in  the  two  books.  The  natural  explanation  of 
this  is  to  understand  that  the  actual  commandment  inscribed  on 
tables  of  stone  would  be  limited  to  the  imperative  clause,  "  Thou 
shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any  graven  image,"  "  Remember  the 
Sabbath  day,  to  keep  it  holy " ;  in  the  simple  commandments 
directed  against  murder  or  theft  nothing  more  would  be  needed, 
but  in  the  more  spiritual  commandments  comment  would  be  added 
by  Moses,  based  on  his  general  intercourse  with  God,  and  not 
upon  the  Divine  words  of  any  particular  occasion.  A  similar 
intermingling  of  message  and  exhortation  extends  throughout  the 
whole  literature  of.  Prophecy.  And  a  passage  in  Ezekiel  shows  us 
that,  even  in  the  times  of  the  prophets  themselves,  the  rhetorical 
element  in  their  discourses  was  coming  to  be  regarded  as  a  sepa- 
rate interest. 

Son  of  man,  the  children  of  thy  people  talk  of  thee  by  the  walls 
and  in  the  doors  of  the  houses,  and  speak  one  to  another,  every  one 
to  his  brother,  saying,  Come,  I  pray  you,  and  hear  what  is 

the  word  that  cometh  forth  from  the  LORD.  .  .  .    And,      ze.ie 

xzziii.  30 
lo,  thou  art  unto  them  as  a  very  lovely  song  of  one  that 

hath  a  pleasant  voice,  and  can  play  well  on  an  instrument :  for  they 
hear  thy  words,  but  they  do  them  not. 


366  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

When  the  discourses  of  Prophecy  are  analysed  as  pieces  of 
literature,  we  find,  as  we  should  expect,  that  they  do  not  as  a  rule 
exhibit  any  clear  structural  plan,  but  rather  contain  warning, 
description,  reflection,  intermingling  in  a  fervour  of  appeal.  A 

typical  discourse  is  that  which  makes  the  opening 
Isaiah  i  .       . «  ri-ii 

chapter   of  Isaiah;    where   the   idea  of  children 

rebelling  against  a  Divine  parent,  of  the  abject  condition  of  the 
people  leading  them  to  fresh  sin,  of  their  intentness  on  sacrifices 
and  neglect  of  righteousness,  the  golden  hopes  held  out  to  them, 
the  picture  of  universal  corruption  with  the  threat  of  terrible 
purging  that  shall  leave  no  more  than  a  small  remnant,  —  all  com- 
bine in  a  rush  of  passionate  thought  that  has  no  need  of  logical 
arrangement. 

There  are,  however,  some  discourses  which  have  structural  as 
well  as  other  interest.  The  elaborate  manifesto  of  Isaiah  which 

follows  the  opening  chapter  commences  with  an 
Isaiah  ii-iv 

ideal  picture  of  the  mountain  of  the  Lord  s  house 

established  at  the  head  of  the  mountains,  and  all  nations  flowing 
to  it  to  learn  His  ways,  beating  their  swords  into  ploughshares  for 
an  era  of  universal  peace.  In  the  light  of  such  a  picture  the 
prophet  invites  the  house  of  Jacob  to  walk  :  and  so  plunges  into 
denunciatory  portrayal  of  corruption  and  idolatry,  against  which 
he  places  in  contrast  the  terror  of  the  majesty  of  the  Lord.  •  The 
general  upsetting  of  natural  relations  he  makes  the  beginning 
of  judgment  on  oppression ;  the  luxury  of  women  he  scornfully 
details,  and  threatens  the  nemesis  that  is  coming  upon  it.  From 
such  ideas  of  judgment  the  prophet  passes,  by  the  image  of  a 
young  shoot  from  an  old  tree,  to  the  remnant  of  Israel  that  shall 
be  again  beautiful,  cleansed  from  pollution,  and  blest  again  with 
the  nightly  fire  and  daily  cloud  of  Divine  guidance.  So  to  frame 
a  denunciation  between  pictures  of  a  golden  age  at  the  begin- 
ning and  end,  gives  an  individuality  of  plan  to  this  deliverance  of 
Isaiah. 

A  discourse  of  Ezekiel,  again,  has  distinctiveness  of  form  given 
Ezekiel  xxxiv  to  it  by  its  being  cast  wholly  in  the  mould  of 


THE  PROPHETIC  DISCOURSE  367 

pastoral  ideas  and  scenery.     God  declares  Himself  against  the 
Shepherds  of  Israel,  that  feed  themselves  and  not  the  sheep. 

Ye  eat  the  fat,  and  ye  clothe  you  with  the  wool,  ye  kill  the  failings ; 
but  ye  feed  not  the  sheep.  The  diseased  have  ye  not  strengthened, 
neither  have  ye  healed  that  which  was  sick,  neither  have  ye  bound 
up  that  which  was  broken,  neither  have  ye  brought  again  that  which 
was  driven  away,  neither  have  ye  sought  that  which  was  lost ;  but 
with  force  and  with  rigour  have  ye  ruled  over  them. 

Still  under  the  name  of  sheep  is  described  the  loss  of  God's  people, 
wandering  without  rescue  until  He  shall  seek  them  out  Himself. 

As  a  shepherd  seeketh  out  his  flock  in  the  day  that  he  is  among  his 
sheep  that  are  scattered  abroad,  so  will  I  seek  out  my  sheep;  and  I 
will  deliver  them  out  of  all  places  whither  they  have  been  scattered 
in  the  cloudy  and  dark  day.  And  I  will  bring  them  out  from  the 
peoples,  and  gather  them  from  the  countries,  and  will  bring  them  into 
their  own  land;  and  I  will  feed  them  upon  the  mountains  of  Israel, 
by  the  watercourses,  and  in  all  the  inhabited  places  of  the  country. 

Among  His  other  gifts,  God  will  feed  them  with  the  'judgment' 
that  makes  distinction  between  oppression  and  meekness. 

Seemeth  it  a  small  thing  unto  you  to  have  fed  upon  the  good  past- 
ure, but  ye  must  tread  down  with  your  feet  the  residue  of  your 
pasture?  and  to  have  drunk  of  the  clear  waters,  but  ye  must  foul 
the  residue  with  your  feet?  And  as  for  my  sheep,  they  eat  that 
which  ye  have  trodden  with  your  feet,  and  they  drink  that  which  ye 
have  fouled  with  your  feet.  Therefore  thus  saith  the  Lord  GOD 
unto  them :  Behold,  I,  even  I,  will  judge  between  the  fat  cattle  and 
the  lean  cattle. 

As  usual,  the  prophecy  works  towards  the  thought  of  restoration, 
and  a  purified  people  amid  ideal  surroundings. 

And  I  will  set  up  one  shepherd  over  them,  and  he  shall  feed  them, 
even  my  servant  David;  he  shall  feed  them,  and  he  shall  be  their 
shepherd.  And  I  the  LORD  will  be  their  God,  and  my  servant 
David  prince  among  them;  I  the  LORD  have  spoken  it.  And  I  will 
make  with  them  a  covenant  of  peace,  and  will  cause  evil  beasts  to 
cease  out  of  the  land :  and  they  shall  dwell  securely  in  the  wilder- 


368  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

ness,  and  sleep  in  the  woods.  And  I  will  make  them  and  the  places 
round  about  my  hill  a  blessing;  and  I  will  cause  the  shower  to  come 
down  in  its  season;  there  shall  be  showers  of  blessing.  And  the 
tree  of  the  field  shall  yield  its  fruit,  and  the  earth  shall  yield  her 
increase,  and  they  shall  be  secure  in  their  land;  and  they  shall  know 
that  I  am  the  LORD,  when  I  have  broken  the  bars  of  their  yoke,  and 
have  delivered  them  out  of  the  hand  of  those  that  served  themselves 
of  them. 

With  exquisite  tenderness  the  pastoral  imagery  has  been  maintained 
without  a  break ;  only  in  the  last  verse  is  the  image  dropped. 

And  ye  my  sheep,  the  sheep  of  my  pasture,  are  men,  and  I  am 
your  God,  saith  the  Lord  GOD. 

I  have  said  that  prediction  is  only  a  secondary  element  of 
Scriptural  prophecy.  Still,  it  has  its  place,  and  occasionally  a 
whole  discourse  is  given  up  to  a  picture  of  the  future.  An  inter- 
esting example  is  the  last  of  the  discourses  ascribed  to  the  prophet 

Zechariah.    It  describes  a  '  Day  of  the  Lord '  which 
Zcchariah  xiv 

is  to  come.     All  nations  will  be  gathered  against 

Jerusalem  to  battle  ;  the  city  will  be  taken,  and  suffer  the  horrors 
of  war,  and  half  its  people  will  go  away  into  captivity,  before  the 
Lord  appears  to  save.  This  salvation  seems  to  echo  the  deliv- 
erances of  past  history.  As  the  Red  Sea  divided  to  afford  escape 
from  the  pursuing  Egyptians,  so  now  the  Mount  of  Olives  is 
cloven,  and  the  fugitives  escape  through  the  valley.  With  a 
reminiscence  of  the  sun  and  moon  standing  still  for  Joshua,  we 
read  of  the  succession  of  day  and  night  being  interrupted  :  at  the 
time  for  evening  there  is  still  light,  and  the  delivered  people  have, 
not  day  and  not  night,  but  "one  day  which  is  known  unto  the 
Lord."  The  nations  that  warred  against  Jerusalem  are  smitten 
with  consuming  plagues,  the  description  of  which  recalls  the  curse 
in  Deuteronomy.  The  very  land  shall  change  its  surface,  until 
Jerusalem  alone  stands  out  on  high,  and  from  its  height  healing 
waters  flow  on  either  side  to  the  boundary  sea.  In  Jerusalem  the 
LORD  shall  reign  as  king  over  all  the  earth :  the  nations  that  had 


369 

fought  against  the  holy  City  shall  go  thither  to  worship,  distant 
Egypt  not  excepted,  while  drought  of  heaven  and  plagues  of  earth 
shall  unite  to  punish  those  who  fail.  A  new  age  of  holiness  is  thus 
introduced  ;  when  there  is  no  need  for  traffic  ;  when  all  life  resolves 
itself  into  journeys  to  the  sacred  feasts ;  when  holiness  is  inscribed 
on  the  bells  of  the  horses,  and  the  meanest  pot  in  the  Lord's  house 
is  as  holy  as  the  bowls  before  the  altar. 

From  the  general  Prophetic  Discourse  a  small  variation  brings 
us  to  Lyric  Prophecy.     High-strung  oratory  easily  passes  into 

lyric  verse  :  the  more  easily  in  a  language  in  which 

/  ,       .         r    „  4  Lyric  Prophecy 

prose  and  verse  overlap.    In  prophecies  of  all  types 

lyrics  may  be  interspersed.  Thus  we  have  seen  in  a  previous 
chapter1  how  the  Book  of  Zephaniah  resolves  itself  into  a  single 
continuous  discourse  of  the  Divine  speaker,  interrupted  at  inter- 
vals by  lyric  strains  of  comment  and  application.  In  the  course 
of  other  prophecies  we  come  upon  bursts  of  lyric  thanksgiving, 

songs  of  triumph,  or  'taunt  songs,'  such  as  that  in 

Isaiah  xlvii 
Isaiah  over  fallen  Babylon;  these  taunt-songs  would 

be  seen  to  play  a  great  part  in  prophetic  literature,  were  it  not 
that  (as  before  remarked2)  the  dirge  rhythm  on  which  they  are 
founded  is  missed  in  our  current  translations. 

But  the  term  '  Lyric  Prophecy '  is  most  fully  applicable  where  a 
complete  discourse  is  in  this  form.     A  striking  example  is  found 
in  the  early  chapters  of  Isaiah.     Its  structure  is 
antistrophic  stanzas  of  recitative  and  rhythm  :  each  ^aighx 
of  the  four  stanzas  has  an  opening  couplet,  a  closing 
refrain,  and  in  the  centre  a  quatrain  that  is  gnomic  in  character, 
while  the  intervening  portions  of  prose  are  exegetical  of  the  rest. 
Besides  this  antistrophic  effect,  the  reiteration  of  the  refrain  pro- 
duces an  effect  of  crescendo  and  advance  from  the  way  in  which 
two  words  in  it  —  'this'  and  'still'  —  gather  increase  of  meaning 
with  each  succeeding  stanza. 

l  Above,  page  124.  2  Above,  page  168. 


370  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

DOOM  OF  THE  NORTH 


The  LORD  sent  a  word  into  Jacob, 
And  it  hath  lighted  upon  Israel. 

And  all  the  people  shall  know,  even  Ephraim  and  the  inhabitant  of 
Samaria,  that  say  in  pride  and  in  stoutness  of  heart, 

The  bricks  are  fallen, 

But  we  will  build  with  hewn  stone; 
The  sycomores  are  cut  down, 

But  we  will  change  them  into  cedars. 

Therefore  the  LORD  shall  set  up  on  high  against  him  the  adversaries 
of  Rezin,  and  shall  stir  up  his  enemies ;  the  Syrians  before,  and  the 
Philistines  behind;  and  they  shall  devour  Israel  with  open  mouth. 

For  all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away, 
But  his  band  is  stretched  out  still ! 


Yet  the  people  hath  not  turned  unto  him  that  smote  them. 
Neither  have  they  sought  the  LORD  of  hosts. 

Therefore  the  LORD  will  cut  off  from  Israel  head  and  tail,  palm- 
branch  and  rush,  in  one  day. 

The  ancient  and  the  honourable  man, 

He  is  the  head; 
And  the  prophet  that  teacheth  lies, 

He  is  the  tail. 

For  they  that  lead  this  people  cause  them  to  err;  and  they  that  are 
led  of  them  are  destroyed.  Therefore  the  LORD  shall  not  rejoice  over 
their  young  men,  neither  shall  he  have  compassion  on  their  father- 
less and  widows:  for  every  one  is  profane  and  an  evil-doer,  and 
every  mouth  speaketh  folly. 

For  all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away, 
But  his  hand  is  stretched  out  still! 


LYRIC  PROPHECY  371 


For  wickedness  burneth  as  the  fire; 
It  devoureth  the  briers  and  thorns : 

yea,  it  kindleth  in  the  thickets  of  the  forest,  and  they  roll  upward  in 
thick  clouds  of  smoke.  Through  the  wrath  of  the  LORD  of  hosts  is 
the  land  burnt  up:  the  people  also  are  as  the  fuel  of  fire;  no  man 
spareth  his  brother. 

And  one  shall  snatch  on  the  right  hand, 

And  be  hungry; 
And  he  shall  eat  on  the  left  hand, 

And  they  shall  not  be  satisfied  : 

they  shall  eat  every  man  the  flesh  of  his  own  arm:  Manasseh, 
Ephraim ;  and  Ephraim,  Manasseh :  and  they  together  shall  be 
against  Judah. 

For  all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away, 
But  his  hand  is  stretched  out  STILL  ! 


Woe  unto  them  that  decree  unrighteous  decrees, 
And  to  the  writers  that  write  perverseness : 

to  turn  aside  the  needy  from  judgement,  and  to  take  away  the  right 
of  the  poor  of  my  people,  that  widows  may  be  their  spoil,  and  that 
they  may  make  the  fatherless  their  prey ! 

• 

And  what  will  ye  do  in  the  day  of  visitation, 

And  in  the  desolation  which  shall  come  from  far? 

To  whom  will  ye  flee  for  help ! 

And  where  will  ye  leave  your  glory? 

They  shall  only  bow  down  under  the  prisoners,  and  shall  fall  undef 
the  slain. 

For  all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away, 
'But  his  hand  is  stretched  out  STILL! 


372  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

An  important  division  of  prophetic  literature  is  Symbolic  Proph- 
ecy. If  Prophecy  in  general  is  in  the  form  of  discourses,  Sym- 
bolic prophecies  are  discourses  with  texts ;  but 
t^ie  texts  ta^en  by tne  prophets  are  not,  like  the  texts 
of  modern  sermons,  quotations  from  the  sacred  writ- 
ings, but  object-texts,  that  is,  external  things  treated  symbolically. 
Perhaps  modern  life  has  approached  nearest  to  such  Symbolic 
Prophecy  in  the  '  Emblem  Literature,'  now  forgotten,  but  for  a 
century  or  two  the  chief  reading  of  the  religious  world.  This 
Emblem  Literature  was  made  up  of  sermons  in  verse  with  hiero- 
glyphic texts.  To  take  a  typical  case.  One  of  Quarles's  emblems 
represents  a  balance ;  in  one  scale  of  this  balance  worlds  (rep- 
resented conventionally  by  balls  with  cross  handles)  are  being 
heaped  up  ;  the  other  scale  contains  nothing,  but  a  mouth  is  seen 
blowing  into  it,  and  this  empty  scale  weighs  down  the  heaped-up 
worlds  on  the  other  side.  This  hieroglyph  is  the  text :  on  the 
Symbolic  opposite  page  a  poetic  sermon  works  out  with  vigour 

Prophecy:  The      the  thought  that  worldly  goods  are  less  than  empty 
breath.     In   the   same  way  there  is  an  Emblem 
Prophecy  which  has  for  its  texts,  not  exactly  pictures,  but  visible 
things  or  actions.     Jeremiah  is  commanded  to  wear  a  linen  girdle 
in  the  eyes  of  the  people  ;  when  they  have  become 

accustomed  to  it:  he  is  to  take  the  girdle  off  and 
hide  it  in  a  hole  of  the  rock ;  several  days  after  he 
is  to  show  it  again,  marred  and  profitable  for  nothing.  This  is  to 
be  a  text,  from  which  he  will  preach  how  Judah,  that  ought  to 
cleave  to  the  Lord  as  the  girdle  cleaveth  to  the  figure,  shall  for 
their  sins  be  seen  to  be  marred  and  useless.  Or,  again,  the  same 
prophet  is  led  to  watch  the  potter  at  work,  aiming  at  one  kind  of 
vessel,  but  if  the  clay  is  marred  making  it  at  his  pleasure  into  a 
vessel  of  a  different  kind  :  from  this  text  he  will  proclaim  that 
Israel  in  the  hands  of  Jehovah  is  but  the  clay  in  the  hands  of  the 
potter.  Or,  attention  is  called  to  baskets  of  figs  standing  before 
the  Temple,  figs  of  the  best  quality  and  figs  uneatable  :  then  is 
spoken  the  paradox  that  it  is  the  captives  carried  away  to  Babylon 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  373 

who  resemble  the  good  figs,  and  the  bad  are  those  who  think  they 
have  escaped  by  remaining  in  the  land. 

I  have  called  the  emblems  texts,  but  they  do  not  necessarily 
come  at  the  beginning.     A  discourse  would  be  specially  impres- 
sive when  its  close  was  accompanied  with  some  symbolic  action. 
We  find  Jeremiah  delivering  a  strain  of  unmeasured 
threatening  and  denunciation,  holding  all  the  while  u  6 
an  earthen  bottle  in  his  hand  :  at  the  end  he  dashes 
the  bottle  to  pieces  in  token  of  the  irremediable  destruction  that 
is  to  come.      On  another  occasion  he  sends  to  the  captives  in 
Babylon  a  written  discourse  foretelling  the  total  overthrow  of  the 
oppressing  city  :    he  instructs  his  deputy,  when  he  has  read  to 
the   end,   to  bind  the   book   to  a   stone  and   cast   it  into  the 
Euphrates,  emblem  of  the  future  when  Babylon  shall  sink  to  rise 
no  more. 

Sometimes  the  symbolic  text  may  be  no  more  than  a  gesture. 
Ezekiel  is  to  set  his  face  towards  the  mountains  of  Israel,  when  he 

proceeds  to  denounce  the  idolatries  committed  on 

Ezekiel  vi.  i,  n 
them;   he  is  to  smite  with  his  hands  and  stamp 

with  his  foot  as  a  starting-point  to  a  picture  of  utter  ruin.    If  such 
things  as  these  seem  too  slight  to  constitute  an  emblem,  it  must 
be  recollected  that  in  all  prophecy  reiteration  played  a  large  part. 
In  the  case  of  Jonah,  so  far  as  we  can  tell,  no  discourse  is  given 
him  to  speak,  but  only  the  cry,  "  Yet  forty  days,  and   (prophetic 
Nineveh  shall  be  overthrown,"  to  be  repeated  over  Reiteration) 
and  over  again  for  a  day  together.     And  elsewhere  there  are 
suggestions  of  similar  reiteration. 

Therefore  thou  shalt  speak  unto  them  this  word :  Thus  saith  the 

LORD,  the  God  of  Israel,  Every  bottle  shall  be  filled 

Jeremiah  ziii.  12 
with  wine :  and  they  shall  say  unto  thee,  Do  we  not 

know  that  every  bottle  shall  be  filled  with  wine  ?  Then  shalt  thou 
say  unto  them,  Thus 'saith  the  LORD,  Behold,  I  will  fill  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  this  land,  even  the  kings  that  sit  upon  David's  throne,  and 
the  priests,  and  the  prophets,  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem 
with  drunkenness. 


374  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

The  natural  interpretation  of  this  passage  is  that  the  apparent 
truism  would  be  repeated  by  the  prophet,  as  he  moved  about 
the  city,  with  a  persistency  designedly  irritating,  until  public 
impatience  breaking  out  in  questioning  made  a  state  of  mind 
favourable  for  being  impressed  with  the  mystic  sense  of  the  truism. 
Similar  reiteration  may  be  understood  in  certain  discourses  of 

Ezekiel,  who  would  ejaculate  "An  end,  an  end,"  or 
Ezekiel  vii.  a,  5 

"An  evil,  an  only  evil,     until  curiosity  had  been 

excited,  as  by  a  riddle ;  such  curiosity  would  serve  to  emphasise 
the  discourse  which  answered  to  those  riddling  ejaculations.  It  is 
clear  that  words  so  delivered  have  as  much  objective  force  as  a 
visible  emblem. 

In  other  cases  the  symbolic  action  from  which  discourses  would 
take  their  departure  seems  to  have  been  sustained  dumb  show : 
the  sermon  would  be  acted  first,  and  preached  afterwards.  A 
notable  example  of  this  is  the  mimic  siege  which  formed  the  basis 
of  so  much  of  Ezekiel's  prophesying. 

Ezekiel  Thou  also,  son  of  man,  take  thee  a  tile,  and  lay  it  before  thee,  and 
iv'  T~v-  4  pourtray  upon  it  a  city,  even  Jerusalem :  and  lay  siege  against  it,  and 
build  forts  against  it,  and  cast  up  a  mount  against  it;  set  camps  also 
against  it,  and  plant  battering  rams  against  it  round  about.  And 
take  thou  unto  thee  an  iron  pan,  and  set  it  for  a  wall  of  iron  between 
thee  and  the  city :  and  set  thy  face  toward  it,  and  it  shall  be  besieged, 
and  thou  shall  lay  siege  against  it.  This  shall  be  a  sign  to  the  house 
of  Israel. 

Moreover  lie  thou  upon  thy  left  side,  and  lay  the  iniquity  of  the 
house  of  Israel  upon  it :  according  to  the  number  of  the  days  that 
thou  shalt  lie  upon  it,  thou  shalt  bear  their  iniquity.  For  I  have 
appointed  the  years  of  their  iniquity  to  be  unto  thee  a  number  of 
days,  even  three  hundred  and  ninety  days :  so  shalt  thou  bear  the 
iniquity  of  the  house  of  Israel.  And  again,  when  thou  hast  accom- 
plished these,  thou  shalt  lie  on  thy  right  side,  and  shalt  bear  the 
iniquity  of  the  house  of  Judah  :  forty  days,  each  day  for  a  year,  have 
I  appointed  it  unto  thee.  And  thou  shalt  set  thy  face  toward  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  with  thine  arm  uncovered;  and  thou  shalt  prophesy 
against  it.  And,  behold,  I  lay  bands  upon  thee,  and  thou  shalt  not 
turn  thee  from  one  side  to  another,  till  thou  hast  accomplished  the 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  375 

days  of  thy  siege.  Take  thou  also  unto  thee  wheat,  and  barley,  and 
beans,  and  lentils,  and  millet,  and  spelt,  and  put  them  in  one  vessel, 
and  make  thee  bread  thereof;  according  to  the  number  of  the  days 
that  thou  shall  lie  upon  thy  side,  even  three  hundred  and  ninety  days, 
shall  thou  eat  Ihereof.  And  Ihy  meal  which  Ihou  shall  eal  shall  be 
by  weighl,  Iwenly  shekels  a  day :  from  time  to  time  shall  Ihou  eal  it. 
And  thou  shall  drink  water  by  measure,  the  sixth  part  of  an  hin : 
from  time  to  time  shall  Ihou  drink. 


From  various  passages  in  the  Book  of  Ezekiel  we  are  able  to 
form  an  idea  of  the  mode  in  which  such  a  commission  would  be 
executed.    It  was  the  custom  for  companies  of  the  elders  of  Israel 
to  wait  upon  the  prophet  at  his  house,  and  sit  before 
him  until  "  the  hand  of  the  Lord  should  fall  upon 
him."     From  the  historical  books  we  know  that  such  visits  to  the 
prophets  were  periodical,  belonging  especially  to  new  moons  and 
Sabbaths ;  but  a  passage  of  Ezekiel  suggests  that 
among  the  exiles  they  took  place  daily.     We  may 
suppose  then  that  at  the  period  in  question  the  prophet  would,  for 
the  whole  time  indicated  in  the  above  passage,  receive  the  daily 
deputation  with  the  same  mimic  siege,  now  taking  the  part  of  the 
besiegers  and  now  of  the  besieged ;  and  from  this  constant  text 
he  would  enlarge  upon  the  various  topics  of  sin  and  judgment  that 
each  day's  inspiration  brought  to  his  mind.    The  matter  contained 
in  the  chapter  that  follows  is  no  more  than  the  general  substance 
of  the  long  series  of  discourses. 

We  even  find  a  change  of  demeanour  and  manner  of  life,  in  so 
marked  an  individual  as  a  prophet,  made  an  emblem  under  which 

a  Divine  message  could  be  conveyed.     The  Lord 

Ezekiel  xzlv.  15 
takes  from  Ezekiel  the  desire  of  his  eyes  with  a 

stroke  :  yet  he  is  neither  to  mourn  nor  weep.  This  loss  of  a 
beloved  wife  borne  without  signs  of  grief  is  to  be  a  symbol  of 
sorrows  coming  upon  Israel  that  are  too  deep  for  tears.  A  still 

more  painful  experience  is  laid  (in  reality  or  in  a 

.     J  .  Hosea  i-iii 

parable)    upon  the  prophet  Hosea,  who  is  com- 
manded to  take  a  wife  from  the  ranks  of  fallen  women .-  his  family 


376  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

life,  and  the  efforts  of  the  prophet  to  reclaim  his  charge,  are  a 
living  text  for  ministry  to  a  people  unfaithful  to  their  God. 

I  have  represented  the  emblem  as  standing  to  the  rest  of  the 
prophetic  discourse  in  the  relation  which  a  modern  text  holds  to 
its  sermon  :  and  this  I  believe  to  be  an  important  principle  of 
interpretation.  At  the  same  time  we  must  recognise  that,  in 
Ezekiel,  there  are  cases  in  which  the  symbolism  extends  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  a  text.  There  are  discourses  of  this  prophet 
which  seem  to  constitute  a  distinct  species  of  literature  in  them- 
selves, a  species  distinguished  by  the  mingling  of  oratory  and 
sustained  dumb  show  in  nearly  equal  proportions.  One  of  these 

Sword  of  the  LORD.     Here  a 


Ezekiei's  Dis- 

course  of  the  drawn  sword  may  serve  as  emblem  text.  But  as 
Sword:  xxi  ^  theme  is  pursued  a  popular  Song  of  the  Sword 

mingles  with  the  discourse,  and  its  augmenting  lines  reflect  the 
gathering  spirit  of  combat. 

A  sword, 

A  sword, 
It  is  sharpened, 

And  also  furbished  : 
It  is  sharpened  that  it  may  make  a  slaughter; 

It  is  furbished  that  it  may  be  as  lightning  ! 
And  it  is  given  to  be  furbished  that  it  may  be  handled; 

The  sword,  it  is  sharpened,  yea  it  is  furbished,  to  give  it  into 
the  hand  of  the  slayer. 

Combined  with  this  we  have,  now  mystery  of  rumour  acted  so 
vividly  that  the  prophet's  audience  cry  out,  What  is  it?  now  the 
careless  scorn  of  the  foe,  and  anon  his  wild  panic  when  the  sword 
falls.  Still  the  Song  of  the  Sword  goes  on  with  augmenting  fer- 
vour to  a  climax. 

Ah  !  it  is  made  as  lightning  ! 
It  is  pointed  for  slaughter  — 

Gather  thee  together,  go  to  the  right; 

Set  thyself  in  array,  go  to  the  left  — 
Whithersoever  thy  face  is  set. 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  377 

Next,  we  see  the  sword-point  tracing  a  map  on  the  earth,  a 
meeting  of  ways,  at  which  the  Babylonian  conqueror  stays  to 
choose  between  Ammon  on  the  left  and  Jerusalem  on  the  right : 
another  vividly  acted  scene  of  panic  brings  out  the  result  of  his 
choice.  Yet  again  we  have  the  sword  and  the  song,  this  time 
connected  mockingly  with  Israel's  foe  the  Ammonites,  who  exult 
in  their  opportunity  :  the  sudden  plunging  of  the  sword  in  its 
sheath  accompanies  the  declaration  that  Ammon  shall  perish  in 
the  country  that  gave  it  birth.1  So  permeated  is  the  mind  of  this 
prophet  with  symbolism  that,  in  cases  where  visible  emblems  are 
impossible,  we  find  often  the  place  supplied  by  literary  imagery, 
a  single  image  being  sustained  throughout  the  whole  of  a  discourse. 
It  is  this  which  has  given  us  the  beautiful  discourse,  already  noted,2 
dominated  throughout  by  pastoral  ideas  and  scenery;  and  we 
shall  see  in  a  later  chapter  how  Ezekiel  denounces  the  Venice  of 
his  age  under  the  sustained  image  of  the  Wreck  of  the  goodly 
Ship  Tyre. 

When  we  consider  the  number  and  variety  in  prophetic  litera- 
ture of  these  object-texts  —  symbolic  articles,  symbolic  gestures 
and  ejaculations,  symbolic  demeanour  and  manner  of  life  —  we 
are  able  to  see  how  this  Emblem  Prophecy  has  its  prototype  in 
the  grand  Ceremonial  Worship  of  the  Tabernacle  and  Temple. 
The  Holy  of  Holies,  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  the  Shewbread, 
the  rites  of  sacrifice  or  of  the  Scapegoat,  all  these  are  perennial 
emblems  of  those  ideas  in  Hebrew  religion  which  are  eternal  and 
of  constant  application.  In  the  same  spirit  Prophecy  uses  symbols 
to  fulfil  its  function  of  bringing  the  principles  of  the  religion  to 
bear  upon  the  detailed  exigencies  and  occasional  problems  of 
public  and  social  life.  And  in  the  light  of  this  analogy  we  cease 
to  be  surprised  at  the  minuteness  with  which,  in  such  a  case  as 
Ezekiel's  siege,  the  emblematic  action  is  prescribed;  the  ceremonial 

1  For  other  examples,  compare  (in  Appendix  I)  the  discourses  on  the  Caldron, 
on  Stuff  for  removing;  and  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible  volume,  of  Ezekiel,  pages 
xiv-xix,  191-2. 

2  Above,  page  366. 


378  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

teaching  of  the  prophet  is  carried  out  with  a  reverent  fidelity  to 
detail  as  great  as  in  the  elaborated  worship  of  the  Temple  itself. 
The  conception  of  a  prophetic  emblem  develops  readily  into 

another   conception   of   considerable   importance. 
Emblem  Proph-      ....  ,  u   j        r  r^^- 

ecy  and  the          When  a  prophecy  had  reference  to  future  time, 

'  sign  of  the         and  was  illustrated  with  some  symbol  that  was  not 
transitory  but  durable,  the  emblem  would  remain 
to  be  confronted  with  the  fulfilled  prophecy,  and  so  would  vindi- 
cate the  authority  of  the  prophet.      A  prophetic  emblem  would 
then  become  a  '  sign  of  the  prophet.'     Jeremiah,  carried  by  force 
into  Egypt,  consoles  his  fellow- captives  with  pre- 
jeremiah  xiiii.      dictions  of  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchad- 
rezzar;  he  takes  great  stones  and  hides  them  in 
the  mortar  at  the  entrance  of  Pharaoh's  palace  in  Tahpanhes, 
declaring   that  the   conqueror  "will  set  his  throne  upon  these 
stones."     Though  the  word  is  not  used,  yet  it  is  clear  that  this 
emblematic  action  would  become  a  '  sign '  of  Jeremiah's  prophetic 
function,  when  the  event  should  take  place.     Such  'signs'  are 
part  of  the  recognised  machinery  of  prophecy.     Isaiah  bids  Ahaz, 

in  a  certain  political  crisis,  "  Ask  thee  a  sign  of  the 
Isaiah  vii.  10 

LORD  thy  God  ;  ask  it  either  in  the  depth,  or  in  the 

height  above."  When  Ahaz  in  his  panic  holds  back,  the  prophet 
himself  volunteers  the  sign  of  a  virgin  conceiving  and  bearing  a 
son  and  calling  his  name  Immanuel :  that  child  shall  not  be  old 
enough  to  know  good  from  evil  before  the  prophet's  prediction 
concerning  the  war  shall  be  seen  to  be  fulfilled.1  It  is  to  be 

1  In  regard  to  the  meaning  of  this  much  disputed  passage,  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  the  difficulties  disappear  if  the  words  of  the  prophet  be  understood  to  apply, 
not  to  any  virgin  of  Judah  (real  or  idealised),  but  to  a  woman  of  the  enemy's  land. 
The  expression  'Immanuel'  occurs  three  times,  (i)  First,  in  the  passage  vii.  10- 
16.  The  situation  here  is  that  the  junction  of  Israel  with  Syria  has  thrown  the 
princes  of  Judah  into  a  panic,  and  the  prophet  strengthens  them  by  pouring  con- 
tempt upon  the  enemy.  So  elated  and  confident  at  this  moment  (he  says)  is  the 
enemy  that  a  woman  of  their  land  gives  her  new-born  child  the  proud  name,  '  God 
with  us ' :  but  that  child  will  soon  be  feeding  on  famine  fare  [that  '  butter  and 
honey '  is  a  name  for  famine  fare  is  shown  by  verse  22]  :  for  before  the  child  is  old 
enough  to  distinguish  good  food  from  evil  the  enemy's  land  whose  allied  kings 
cause  this  panic  to  Judah  shall  be  forsaken  by  these  kings.  (2)  The  phrase  occurs 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  379 

observed,  however,  that  the  word  '  sign  '  is  also,  in  prophetic  liter- 
ature, applied  to  what  we  have  here  called  the  emblem  ;  thus 
Ezekiel  carrying  on  his  siege,  or  refraining  from 
tears  at  his  wife's  death,  is  pronounced  by  the  Lord  ^^  1V'  3* 
to  be  a  'sign'  to  the  people.    The  variation  between 
the  two  meanings  of  the  word  —  between  the  'sign'  which  is  a 
symbolic  illustration  of  the  prophecy,  and  the  '  sign  '  which  is  a 
miraculous  vindication  of  the  prophet  —  is  the  index  of  an  impor- 
tant tendency  in  the  attitude  of  the  public  mind  towards  prophecy, 
by  which  the  spiritual  force  of  prophetic  utterances  came  to  be 
more  and  more  ignored,  and  the  element  of  prediction  and  miracle 
grew  into  emphasis.    So  far  has  this  tendency  prevailed  in  the  age 
of  the  New  Testament  that  the  constant  and  indignant  complaint 
of  Jesus  Christ  is  against  a  "generation  that  seeketh  a  sign." 

The  Prophecy  of  Vision  is,  in  its  elementary  form,  hardly  dis- 
tinguished from  Emblem  Prophecy  :    the  emblem 
texts  are  merely  presented  in  supernatural  vision,  ejml?xhe  vision" 
instead  of  being  seen  by  the  ordinary  eyesight. 
The  books  of  Amos  and  Zechariah  are  full  of  such  vision  emblems. 
But  the  supreme  example  of  them  is  Ezekiel's  Vision  of  the  Valley 
of  Dry  Bones.     He  is  carried  out  in  the  spirit  of 


,  .  .  ...  xxxvil 

the  Lord  and  set  down  in  the  midst  of  the  valley  ; 

the  valley  is  full  of  bones,  and  lo,  they  are  very  dry.  He  is  com- 
manded to  prophesy  :  and  as  he  pours  forth  his  speech  there  is 
thundering  and  earthquake  ;  bone  comes  to  his  bone,  flesh  and 

a  second  time  in  viii,  5-8.  This  whole  paragraph  is  addressed  to  the  enemy,  Israel  ; 
and  the  Assyrian,  under  the  image  of  a  flood,  is  described  as  overflowing  the  land 
of  Israel  [there  is  no  reference  to  Judah  except  the  single  clause,  ''he  shall  sweep 
onward  into  Judah  "]  :  the  climax  is,  the  flood  shall  fill  thy  land,  O  boaster  of  "  God 
with  us."  (3)  The  third  recurrence  of  the  phrase  is  in  viii.  10,  where  the  false  boast 
of  Israel  is  claimed  for  Judah  as  a  truth  :  lay  your  schemes  (the  prophet  cries  to 
the  allied  enemies)  and  they  shall  come  to  nought,  for  "  God  is  with  us."  Of  course 
this  explanation  relates  to  the  primary  interpretation  of  the  piece  of  historic  proph- 
ecy: it  need  not  interfere  with  any  theological  use  of  the  term  'Immanuel'  as  a 
secondary  interpretation;  indeed,  the  third  passage,  which  claims  the  true  '  Imman- 
uel '  for  Judah,  is  basis  enough  for  such  interpretation.  —  This  has  been  discussed 
at  length  in  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible  {Isaiah,  pages  223-230). 


380  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

skin  cover  them ;  from  the  four  winds  comes  breath,  and  breathes 
upon  the  slain,  and  they  live,  and  stand  upon  their  feet,  an  exceed- 
ing great  army.  Thus  impressively  is  elaborated,  in  the  region 
of  the  supernatural,  a  symbolic  text,  from  which  Ezekiel  preaches 
that  Israel  with  its  dead  hopes  shall  come  out  of  its  graves,  and 
feel  the  life-giving  breath  of  the  Lord. 

But  this  elementary  conception  of  Vision  Prophecy  undergoes 
The  vision  Em-  a  development  similar  to  that  traced  in  the  last 
Wem  and  section.  As  the  prophetic  emblem,  when  applied 

•  Reveiatwn •  to  futurjtVj  tended  to  change  into  the  'sign  of  the 
prophet,'  so  the  vision  emblem  develops  into  the  '  Revelation,'  as 
that  word  is  generally  understood,  namely,  the  supernatural  revela- 
tion of  the  future.  It  is  worth  while  to  distinguish 
?hY  Future  °f  three  types  among  such  Visions  of  Revelation. 
First,  we  have  the  case  in  which  the  vision  is  sym- 
bolic and  supernatural,  whereas  the  interpretation  comes  by  natural 
means.  The  fingers  of  a  hand  writing  on  the  wall  startle  Belshaz- 
zar's  feast  with  mystic  words  :  Daniel  by  his  wisdom  discovers 
the  meaning,  and  the  destruction  that  is  about  to  come.  In  the 
second  type  an  interpreter  is  provided  by  supernatural  means, 
and  the  vision  is  given  by  him  in  direct  speech.  Thus  Daniel, 
troubling  over  the  mysteries  of  times  and  seasons,  feels  himself 
'  touched '  by  an  angel  at  the  time  of  the  evening  oblation,  and 
Gabriel  foretells  what  shall  come  to  pass  in  terms  that  are  direct, 
however  difficult.  To  this  second  category  may  be  referred  the 
Calls  of  the  Prophets :  visionary  scenes  in  which  God  himself 
appears  under  symbolic  forms,  but  the  commission  is  given  to  the 
prophet  in  plain  language.  In  the  third  type  both  the  vision  and 
the  interpretation  are  symbolic  and  supernatural ;  as  where  the 
future  interchange  of  dynasties  is  conveyed  to  Daniel  in  the  vision 
of  the  Four  Beasts,  or  the  vision  of  the  Ram  and  the  He-goat, 
while  the  significance  of  what  he  sees  is  explained  by  a  personage 
of  the  vision  itself. 

But  it  is  important  to  distinguish  from  this  another  meaning  of 
the  word  'Revelation';  we  find  visions  that  are  revelations,  not 


SYMBOLIC  PROPHECY  381 

of  the  future,  but  of  the  law  and  pattern  of  things.     As  the  one 

kind  of  vision  is  an  extension  of  the  prophetic  dream, 

so  the  other  has  for  its  prototype  the  original  reve-   -?ve  a  ?I< 


lation  to  Moses  on  the  mount  of  the  ceremonial 
law  and  the  pattern  of  the  Tabernacle.  Important  examples  of  the 
two  types  of  Revelation  are  Ezekiel's  companion  visions  of  Jeru- 
salem under  Judgment  and  Jerusalem  Restored, 
which  cover  no  less  than  thirteen  chapters  of  his 
book.  The  two  are  separated,  in  conformity  with 
the  general  arrangement  of  Ezekiel's  writings,  and  their  division 
between  prophecies  of  judgment  and  of  restoration; 
but  that  the  two  are  parts  of  one  whole  is  expressly 
said  in  the  vision  itself.  In  the  first  case  Ezekiel  is  carried  "  in 
the  visions  of  God  "  to  Jerusalem,  and  beholds  the  Glory  of 
the  God  of  Israel  as  on  the  occasion  of  his  own  call.  He  is  made 
to  dig  through  the  Temple  wall  and  see  idolatrous  practices  car- 
ried on  in  its  chambers  and  precincts  ;  agents  of  destruction  do 
their  work  before  his  eyes,  and  he  sees  the  city  sprinkled  with 
ashes  taken  from  between  the  cherubim  ;  he  is  himself  called  to 
bear  a  part  in  the  work  of  judgment,  and  as  he  prophesies  he  sees 
one  of  the  leaders  of  iniquity  fall  dead.  All  the  scene  so  described 
makes  up  the  symbol  of  this  vision.  We  are  not  to  understand 
that  the  weeping  for  Tammuz,  or  the  creeping  abominations,  were 
necessarily  to  be  seen  in  just  the  spot  where  Ezekiel  beholds  them, 
any  more  than  we  are  to  understand  that  Pelatiah  actually  died  at 
the  time  when  Ezekiel  was  under  the  prophetic  spell.  The  whole 
is  a  symbolic  representation  of  the  general  idolatry  and  desecration 
of  the  sacred  city.  The  companion  vision  shows  a  great  change 
from  this  symbolism.  The  same  supernatural  agency  transports 
the  prophet  to  the  same  spot.  But  what  he  sees  is  a  city  and 
temple  gradually  taking  shape,  and  measured  with  exactness  of 
proportions  which  he  is  commanded  to  store  in  his  memory.  The 
Glory  of  the  God  of  Israel  proclaims  this  the  place  of  his  throne 
for  ever,  and,  in  phrases  which  seem  to  echo  Exodus,  calls  upon 
the  house  of  Israel  to  "measure  the  pattern,"  or  to  receive  this  as 


382  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

"  the  law  of  the  house."  Then  is  continued  the  ordering  of  city, 
temple,  ritual,  and  even  division  of  the  land  of  Palestine,  with  a 
minuteness  which  seems  like  the  former  revelation  on  Sinai  adapted 
to  a  new  dispensation.  Throughout  the  whole  nine  chapters  there 
is  scarcely  anything  that  can  be  called  symbolic,  except  the  con- 
ception of  the  living  waters  issuing  from  the  Temple  and  flowing 
to  fertilise  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  banks  of  which  are  the  never- 
withering  trees,  with  their  fruits  renewed  month  by  month  and 
their  leaves  for  healing.  In  the  course,  then,  of  this  extended 
vision  we  are  able  to  watch  the  transition  from  one  type  of  revela- 
tion to  another ;  while  the  symbolic  is  the  distinction  of  the  one, 
in  the  other  the  symbolic  passes  into  the  ideal.  In  the  interpreta- 
tion of  Prophecy  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  distinguish  to 
which  of  these  two  types  of  revelation  any  particular  vision  belongs. 

Symbolic  Prophecy  has  detained  us  a  long  time ;  it  remains  to 
point  out  that,  in  addition  to  Emblem  Prophecy 
te  and  Vision  Fr°Phecy>  it:  includes  a  third  branch,— 
the   Prophetic  Parable.     This  is  again  a  sermon 
with  a  symbolic  text :  the  only  difference  is  that  the  emblem  is 
here  narrated-  instead  of  being  visibly  presented.     Such  a  para- 
bolic text  has  its  ultimate  basis  in  the  Fable  of 

Isaiah  v 

primitive  literature.1     Isaiah's  Parable  of  the  Vine- 
yard, so  favourably  placed  and  carefully  tended,  yet  bringing  forth 
wild  grapes,  is  amongst  the  most  familiar  portions  of  prophetic 
literature.     The  same  symbol  is  differently  used  in 
a  Parable  of  Ezekiel,  who  treats  the  vine  as  the 
one  wood  that  is  profitable  for  no  use.     This  latter 
prophet  is  specially  fond  of  parabolic  discourse,  and  his  favourite 

1  The  Fable  as  a  literary  form  is  defined  by  its  conveying  human  interest  under 
the  disguise  of  inferior  beings.  It  is  observable  that  the  two  specimens  of  the 
primitive  Fable  in  Scripture  (Judges  ix.  8-15  and  II  Kings  xiv.  9)  are  of  the  kind 
that  ascribe  human  thoughts  to  things  of  the  vegetable  world.  The  other  great 
division  of  Fables,  that  which  puts  human  speech  into  the  mouth  of  brutes,  is  not 
represented  in  the  Bible,  unless,  as  some  commentators  suppose,  the  incident  of 
Balaam  and  his  ass  be  such  a  Fable  incorporated  in  the  narrative. 


PROPHETIC  INTERCOURSE  383 

symbol  seems  to  be  that  of  an  unfaithful  spouse ;  in  a  way  peculiar 
to  himself  he  works  out  this  theme  with  a  wonderful  combination 
of  tenderness  and  unsparing  plainness  of  speech.  It  is  hardly 
•accessary  to  remark  upon  the  prominence  assumed  in  a  later  age 
by  this  particular  type  of  discourse  :  of  the  supreme  Prophet  of  the 
New  Testament  it  is  said  that  "without  a  parable  spake  he  not." 

Prophetic  Intercourse  makes  a  literary  division  that  does  not 
need  lengthy  discussion.  The  intercourse  of  the  prophet  with 
God  constitutes  legitimate  matter  of  prophecy. 

Besides  the  visions  of  their  call  to  the  office  of  Prophetic  inter- 

iT-ii-11  r      i     course :  (i)  with 

prophet,  both  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  have  set  forth  Q^ 

in  their  books   communings  which  do  not  seem 
intended  for  publication  to  the  people.   We  find  also  Dialogues  of 
Intercession  (either  standing  alone,  or  merged  in  other  prophe- 
cies), of  which  the  great  prototype  is  Abraham's  intercession  for 
Sodom. 

Again,  there  is  the  intercourse  of  the  prophet  with  enquirers. 
From  the  earliest  history  we  read  of  persons  'enquiring  of  the 
Lord,'  and  receiving  oracles  in  reply.     Thus  Re- 
bekah  heard  before  their  birth  the  destiny  of  her  ^  with  enquir' 
twin  children ;    Saul  enquiring  found  no  answer, 
"  by  dreams,  nor  by  Urim,  nor  by  prophets."      We  find,  as  a 
regular  custom,  that  deputations  visit  the  prophet,  and  wait  till 
inspiration  falls  upon  him,  and  so  receive  his  Response.     With 
this  is  connected  what  may  be  called  an  artificial 
form  of  prophecy,  in   which   there   is   no   actual 
interview  between  the  prophet  and  another  inter- 
locutor, but  the  discourse  takes  the  form  of  a  reply  to  an  imagi- 
nary objection  or  interruption.      The  whole  of  Malachi  seems 
constructed  in  this  form  of  Dialectic  Prophecy.     Its  paragraphs 
uniformly  take  a  shape  that  may  be  thus  represented  : 

(  A  Complaint 

<  An  interposed  Objection 

[  The  answering  Discourse 


384  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

In  some  cases  the  objection  is  duplicated,  as  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  brief  condensation  : 

Instead  of  honouring,  the  priests  despise  God's  name. 

Wherein  despise  it? 
In  offering  polluted  bread  upon  his  altar. 

Wherein  polluted? 

The  Answering  Discourse  puts  the  cheapening  of  offerings  made  to 
the  Lord,  and  how  the  ideal  of  the  priesthood  is  reversed. 

Once  more,  Prophecy  includes  the  intercourse  of  the  prophet 
with  the  world  in  general.  The  books  narrate  Incidents,  like  the 
conspiracy  of  his  native  Anathoth  against  Jeremiah, 
or  tne  Burning  of  his  roll  by  the  king,  or  the  cast- 
ing of  Daniel  into  a  den  of  lions  ;  or  Controversies, 
like  that  stirred  up  by  Jeremiah's  wearing  the  emblem  of  the  yoke. 
These  Incidents  (illustrations  of  which  are  given  in  the  Table  of 
Prophecy)  make  an  approach  to  the  Epic  Prophecy  discussed 
in  a  former  book.  More  than  this,  the  department  of  Prophecy 
overlaps  with  that  of  History,  as  whole  sections  of  the  prophetic 
books  show.  What  Nathan  was  to  David,  that  the  whole  suc- 
cession of  greater  and  minor  prophets  were  to  later  history. 
The  secular  kingship  had  its  orders  of  officials ;  the  order  of 
prophets  were  the  representatives  of  the  higher  theocracy,  and 
their  action  in  each  crisis  makes  a  part  at  once  of  Prophecy 
and  History. 

We  find  ourselves  on  a  different  literary  plane  when  we  come 
to  Dramatic  Prophecy.  To  constitute  this  a  scene  or  situation 
must  be  presented  entirely  by  dialogue,  without 
anv  description  or  comment  from  the  prophet, 
except  so  far  as  he  may  be  a  party  to  the  scene. 
These  dramatic  scenes  are  highly  interesting ;  but  the  absence 
in  ancient  literatures  of  any  attempt  to  indicate  the  speakers 
in  passages  of  dialogue  has  led  to  much  obscurity  and  misinter- 
pretation. 


DRAMATIC  PROPHECY  385 

A  simple  illustration  occurs  in  the  Book  of  Micah,  and  may 
be   entitled,   'The   Lord's   Controversy  before   the   Mountains.' 

Jehovah   calls   upon   the   Mountains   to   hear   his 

Micah  vi.  x-8 
controversy  with  his  people ;  and  himself  proceeds 

to  arraign  Israel,  rehearsing  his  long-continued  kindnesses,  and 
citing  Balaam  as  his  witness  to  the  blessings  bestowed  on  Jacob. 
Then  the  other  party  to  the  controversy  is  afraid  to  put  in  an 
appearance. 

Wherewith  shall  I  come  before  the  LORD,  and  bow  myself  before 
the  high  God  ?  shall  I  come  before  him  with  burnt  offerings,  with 
calves  of  a  year  old  ?  Will  the  LORD  be  pleased  with  thousands  of 
rams,  or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil?  Shall  I  give  my  first- 
born for  my  transgression,  the  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul? 

The  Mountains  may  then  be  understood  to  pronounce  judgment. 

He  hath  shewed  thee,  O  man,  what  is  good;  and  what  doth  the 
LORD  require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly,  and  to  love  mercy,  and  to 
walk  humbly  with  thy  God? 

This  dramatic  scene  is  immediately  followed  by  another  some- 
what more  extended  in  form.     The  passage  is  headed :  "  The 

voice  of  the  LORD  crieth  unto  the  city,  and  the 

...  .„  Micah  vi.  g-vii 

man  of  wisdom   will  see   thy  name.      This  title 

suggests  that  we  have  in  '  the  Man  of  Wisdom '  an  addition  to 
what  may  be  called  the  natural  dramatis  persona,  namely,  God, 
the  Prophet,  and  the  offending  People,  which  last  may  in  this 
case  be  termed  the  Men  of  Folly.  The  voice  of  God  is  heard 
denouncing  injustice,  violence,  and  the  "  statutes  of  Omri " ; 
wounding,  humiliation,  famine,  are  threatened,  until  the  people 
of  the  wicked  city  shall  become  a  desolation  and  a  hissing.  This 
interposition  of  Jehovah  throws  the  wicked  of  the  city  into  con- 
fusion, while  the  wise  see  in  it  their  salvation. 

The  Men  of  Folly.  —  Woe  is  me !  for  I  am  as  when  they  have 
gathered  the  summer  fruits,  as  the  grape  gleanings  of  the  vintage: 
there  is  no  cluster  to  eat;  nor  first-ripe  fig  which  my  soul  desired. 


386  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

The  godly  man  is  perished  out  of  the  earth,  and  there  is  none  upright 
among  men :  they  all  lie  in  wait  for  blood;  they  hunt  every  man  his 
brother  with  a  net.  Both  hands  are  put  forth  for  evil  to  do  it; 
the  prince  asketh,  and  the  judge  is  ready  for  a  reward;  and  the 
great  man,  he  uttereth  the  mischief  of  his  soul :  thus  they  weave  it 
together.  The  best  of  them  is  as  a  brier:  the  straightest  is  as  it 
were  taken  from  a  thorn  hedge :  the  day  of  thy  watchmen,  even  thy 
visitation,  is  come;  now  shall  be  their  perplexity.  Trust  ye  not  in  a 
friend,  put  ye  not  confidence  in  a  guide:  keep  the  doors  of  thy 
mouth  from  her  that  lieth  in  thy  bosom.  For  the  son  dishonoureth 
the  father,  the  daughter  riseth  up  against  her  mother,  the  daughter- 
in-law  against  her  mother-in-law;  a  man's  enemies  are  the  men  of 
his  own  house. 

The  Man  of  Wisdom.  —  But  as  for  me,  I  will  look  unto  the  LORD; 
I  will  wait  for  the  God  of  my  salvation :  my  God  will  hear  me. 
Rejoice  not  against  me,  O  mine  enemy :  when  I  fall,  I  shall  arise ; 
when  I  sit  in  darkness,  the  LORD  shall  be  a  light  unto  me.  I  will 
bear  the  indignation  of  the  LORD,  because  I  have  sinned  against 
him;  until  he  plead  my  cause,  and  execute  judgement  for  me:  he 
will  bring  me  forth  to  the  light,  and  I  shall  behold  his  righteousness. 
Then  mine  enemy  shall  see  it,  and  shame  shall  cover  her;  which 
said  unto  me,  Where  is  the  LORD  thy  God?  Mine  eyes  shall  behold 
her;  now  shall  she  be  trodden  down  as  the  mire  of  the  streets. 

The  voice  of  God  is  now  heard  in  tones  of  comfort :  it  pro- 
claims the  rebuilding  of  the  city's  walls,  and  (after  an  echoing  cry 
from  the  Man  of  Wisdom)  describes  marvels  of  restoration  to 
equal  the  old  wonders  done  in  Egypt :  the  oppressing  nations 
shall  come  creeping  out  of  their  hiding-places,  trembling  with 
fear  of  the  Deliverer.  Then  the  Man  of  Wisdom  brings  the  scene 
to  a  conclusion. 

The  Man  of  Wisdom.  —  Who  is  a  God  like  unto  thee,  that  par- 
doneth  iniquity,  and  passeth  by  the  transgression  of  the  remnant  of 
his  heritage?  he  retaineth  not  his  anger  forever,  because  he  delighteth 
in  mercy.  He  will  turn  again  and  have  compassion  upon  us;  he  will 
tread  our  iniquities  under  foot :  and  thou  wilt  cast  all  their  sins  into 
the  depths  of  the  sea.  Thou  wilt  perform  the  truth  to  Jacob,  and 
the  mercy  to  Abraham,  which  thou  hast  sworn  unto  our  father* 
from  the  days  of  old. 


DRAMATIC  PROPHECY  387 

A  slight  variation  from  this  simple  dramatic  type  is  afforded  by 
those  prophecies  in  which  only  a  single  speaker  is  presented, — 
God  :  but  the  alternations  in  the  Divine  mind  between  judgment 
and  compassion  produce  all  the  effect  of  dialogue.  The  Divine 
Yearning  is  pictured  in  this  way  by  Hosea. 

God.  —  When  Israel  was  a  child,  then  I  loved  him,  and  called  my 
son  out  of  Egypt.  — 

As  they  called  them,  so  they  went  from  them :    they    Hosea 
sacrificed  unto  the  Baalim,  and  burned  incense  to  graven    ^  X~IX 
images.  — 

Yet  I  taught  Ephraim  to  go;  I  took  them  on  my  arms;  but  they 
knew  not  that  I  healed  them.  I  drew  them  with  cords  of  a  man, 
with  bands  of  love;  and  I  was  to  them  as  they  that  take  off  the 
yoke  on  their  jaws,  and  I  laid  meat  before  them.  — 

He  shall  not  return  into  the  land  of  Egypt;  but  the  Assyrian  shall 
be  his  king,  because  they  refused  to  return.  And  the  sword  shall 
fall  upon  his  cities,  and  shall  consume  his  bars,  and  devour  thems 
because  of  their  own  counsels.  And  my  people  are  bent  to  back- 
sliding from  me :  though  they  call  them  to  him  that  is  on  high,  none 
at  all  will  lift  himself  up.  — 

How  shall  I  give  thee  up,  Ephraim?  how  shall  I  deliver  thee, 
Israel?  how  shall  I  make  thee  as  Admah?  how  shall  I  set  thee  as 
Zeboim?  mine  heart  is  turned  within  me,  my  compassions  are  kin- 
dled together.  I  will  not  execute  the  fierceness  of  mine  anger,  I  will 
not  return  to  destroy  Ephraim:  for  I  am  God,  and  not  man;  the 
Holy  One  in  the  midst  of  thee :  and  I  will  not  come  in  wrath. 
They  shall  walk  after  the  LORD,  who  shall  roar  like  a  lion :  for  he 
shall  roar,  and  the  children  shall  come  trembling  from  the  west. 
They  shall  come  trembling  as  a  bird  out  of  Egypt,  and  as  a  dove  out 
of  the  land  of  Assyria:  and  I  will  make  them  to  dwell  in  their 
houses,  saith  the  LORD. 

Later  on  the  introduction  of  another  speaker  extends  mono- 
logue into  dialogue. 

God.  —  When  Ephraim  spake  with  trembling,  he  exalted    Hosea 
himself  in  Israel :  but  when  he  offended  in  Baal,  he  died.    xi"-x>v 
And  now  they  sin  more  and  more,  and  have  made  them  molten 
images  of  their  silver,  even  idols  according  to  their  own  understand- 
ing, all  of  them  the  work  of  the  craftsmen :  they  say  of  them,  Let 


388  BIBLICAL  LITERA  TURE   OF  PROPHECY 

the  men  that  sacrifice  kiss  the  calves.  Therefore  they  shall  be  as  the 
morning  cloud,  and  as  the  dew  that  passeth  early  away,  as  the  chaff 
that  is  driven  with  the  whirlwind  out  of  the  threshing-floor,  and  as 
the  smoke  out  of  the  chimney.  — 

Yet  I  am  the  LORD  thy  God  from  the  land  of  Egypt;  and  thou 
knowest  no  god  but  me,  and  beside  me  there  is  no  saviour.  I  did 
know  thee  in  the  wilderness,  in  the  land  of  great  drought.  Accord- 
ing to  their  pasture,  so  were  they  filled;  they  were  filled,  and  their 
heart  was  exalted :  therefore  have  they  forgotten  me.  — 

Therefore  am  I  unto  them  as  a  lion :  as  a  leopard  will  I  watch  by 
the  way :  I  will  meet  them  as  a  bear  that  is  bereaved  of  her  whelps, 
and  will  rend  the  caul  of  their  heart :  and  there  will  I  devour  them 
like  a  lion;  the  wild  beast  shall  tear  them.  It  is  thy  destruction, 
O  Israel,  that  thou  art  against  me,  against  thy  help.  Where  now  is 
thy  king,  that  he  may  save  thee  in  all  thy  cities  ?  and  thy  judges,  of 
whom  thou  saidst,  Give  me  a  king  and  princes  ?  I  have  given  thee 
a  king  in  mine  anger,  and  have  taken  him  away  in  my  wrath.  The 
iniquity  of  Ephraim  is  bound  up;  his  sin  is  laid  up  in  store.  The 
sorrows  of  a  travailing  woman  shall  come  upon  him :  he  is  an  unwise 
son;  for  it  is  time  he  should  not  tarry  in  the  place  of  the  breaking 
forth  of  children.  — 

I  will  ransom  them  from  the  power  of  the  grave;  I  will  redeem 
them  from  death :  O  death,  where  are  thy  plagues?  O  grave,  where 
is  thy  destruction  ?  — 

Repentance  shall  be  hid  from  mine  eyes.  Though  he  be  fruitful 
among  his  brethren,  an  east  wind  shall  come,  the  breath  of  the  LORD 
coming  up  from  the  wilderness,  and  his  spring  shall  become  dry,  and 
his  fountain  shall  be  dried  up:  it  shall  spoil  the  treasure  of  all 
pleasant  vessels.  Samaria  shall  bear  her  guilt ;  for  she  hath  rebelled 
against  her  God :  they  shall  fall  by  the  sword ;  their  infants  shall  be 
dashed  in  pieces,  and  their  women  with  child  shall  be  ripped  up. 

Repentant  Israel.  —  O  Israel,  return  unto  the  LORD  thy  God;  for 
thou  hast  fallen  by  thine  iniquity.  Take  with  you  words,  and  return 
unto  the  LORD  :  say  unto  him,  "  Take  away  all  iniquity,  and  receive 
us  graciously :  so  will  we  render  as  bullocks  the  offering  of  our  lips. 
Asshur  shall  not  save  us;  we  will  not  ride  upon  horses:  neither  will 
we  say  any  more  to  the  work  of  our  hands,  Ye  are  our  gods :  for  in 
thee  the  fatherless  findeth  mercy." 

God.  —  I  will  heal  their  backsliding,  I  will  love  them  freely :  for 
mine  anger  is  turned  away  from  him.  I  will  be  as  the  dew  unto 
Israel :  he  shall  blossom  as  the  lily,  and  cast  forth  his  roots  as  Leba- 


DRAMATIC  PROPHECY  389 

non.  His  branches  shall  spread,  and  his  beauty  shall  be  as  the  olive 
tree,  and  his  smell  as  Lebanon.  They  that  dwell  under  his  shadow 
shall  return;  they  shall  revive  as  the  corn,  and  blossom  as  the  vine: 
the  scent  thereof  shall  be  as  the  wine  of  Lebanon. 

Ephraim.  —  What  have  I  to  do  any  more  with  idols? 

God.  —  I  have  answered,  and  will  regard  him. 

Ephraim.  —  I  am  like  a  green  fir  tree  — 

God.  —  From  me  is  thy  fruit  found. 

We  have  thus  seen  the  prophetic  literature  of  the  Bible  assum- 
ing very  various  forms.  Besides  the  simple  record  of  intercourse 
with  God  or  with  the  people,  the  prophet's  message  may  be  an 
elaborate  discourse ;  the  discourse  may  have  a  symbolic  text,  and 
so  present  the  varieties  of  emblem,  vision,  and  parable;  the 
prophecy  may  clothe  itself  in  lyric  poetry,  or  it  may  be  presented 
in  a  dramatic  scene.  There  still  remain  to  be  mentioned  two 
kinds  of  prophecy  of  such  importance  from  the  literary  standpoint 
that  they  must  be  discussed  in  separate  chapters. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

FORMS    OF    PROPHETIC    LITERATURE  :    THE    DOOM    SONG 

AMONG  forms  of  Prophecy  there  is  one  which  has  a  distinctive- 
ness  and  prominence  in  the  Bible,  and  from  the  literary  point  of 
view  so  special  an  interest,  that  it  seems  proper  in  The  Doom  g 
this  work  to  treat  it  in  a  chapter  by  itself.  This  is  as  a  form  of 
the  Doom  Song :  a  prophetic  utterance  directed  pr°Phecy 
against  some  particular  city,  nation,  or  country.  The  kingdoms 
of  Israel,  however  unique  their  position  in  the  history  of  mankind, 
yet  in  their  own  age  formed  part  of  a  network  of  states.  There 
were  neighbour  peoples,  like  the  Philistines  or  Syrians,  kindred 
races,  such  as  Moabites,  Edomites,  Ammonites,  the  maritime 
powers  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  others  :  all  stretching  like  a  chain 
between  the  two  world  empires  of  Egypt  on  the  south  and  Assyria 
on  the  northeast.  Deliverance  from  one  of  these  empires  formed 
the  starting-point  of  Israel's  history,  and  into  the  other  she  was 
destined  to  be  absorbed ;  meanwhile  the  ceaseless  fluctuations  of 
power  and  of  mutual  relations  between  all  these  nations  and  em- 
pires imposed  a  continual  foreign  policy  on  the  kingdoms  of  Israel 
and  Judah.  The  prophets  exercised  influence  in  this  foreign 
policy,  as  well  as  in  domestic  questions.  And,  over  and  above 
questions  of  temporary  policy,  there  was  the  perpetual  function  of 
Israel  as  a  nation  to  uphold  the  worship  of  the  true  God  amidst 
nations  of  idolaters ;  and  the  constant  witnesses  to  this  were  the 
prophets.  One  product  of  such  prophetic  ministry  was  this 
denunciatory  discourse  or  Doom  Song. 

390 


THE  DOOM  SONG  391 

There  is  a  remarkable  passage  in  Jeremiah  which  may  well 
serve  as  preface  to  a  discussion  of  the  whole  subject. 

**v.  15  For  thus  saith  the  LORD,  the  God  of  Israel,  unto  me :  Take  the 
cup  of  the  wine  of  this  fury  at  my  hand,  and  cause  all  the  nations,  to 
whom  I  send  thee,  to  drink  it.  And  they  shall  drink,  and  reel  to  and 
fro,  and  be  mad,  because  of  the  sword  that  I  will  send  among  them. 
Then  took  I  the  cup  at  the  LORD'S  hand,  and  made  all  the  nations 
to  drink,  unto  whom  the  LORD  had  sent  me :  to  wit,  Jerusalem,  and 
the  cities  of  Judah,  and  the  kings  thereof,  and  the  princes  thereof,  to 
make  them  a  desolation,  an  astonishment,  an  hissing,  and  a  curse; 
as  it  is  this  day;  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt,  and  his  servants,  and  his 
princes,  and  all  his  people;  and  all  the  mingled  people,  and  all  the 
kings  of  the  land  of  Uz,  and  all  the  kings  of  the  land  of  the  Philis- 
tines, and  Ashkelon,  and  Gaza,  and  Ekron,  and  the  remnant  of 
Ashdod;  Edom,  and  Moab,  and  the  children  of  Ammon;  and  all 
the  kings  of  Tyre,  and  all  the  kings  of  Sidon,  and  the  kings  of  the 
isle  which  is  beyond  the  sea;  Dedan,  and  Tema,  and  Buz,  and  all 
that  have  the  corners  of  their  hair  polled;  and  all  the  kings  of  Ara- 
bia, and  all  the  kings  of  the  mingled  people  that  dwell  in  the  wilder- 
ness; and  all  the  kings  of  Zimri,  and  all  the  kings  of  Elam,  and  all 
the  kings  of  the  Medes;  and  all  the  kings  of  the  north,  far  and  near, 
one  with  another;  and  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world,  which  are 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth :  and  the  king  of  Sheshach  shall  drink 
after  them.  And  thou  shalt  say  unto  them,  Thus  saith  the  LORD  of 
hosts,  the  God  of  Israel :  Drink  ye,  and  be  drunken,  and  spue,  and 
fall,  and  rise  no  more,  because  of  the  sword  which  I  will  send  among 
you.  And  it  shall  be,  if  they  refuse  to  take  the  cup  at  thine  hand 
to  drink,  then  shalt  thou  say  unto  them,  Thus  saith  the  LORD  of 
hosts :  Ye  shall  surely  drink.  For,  lo,  I  begin  to  work  evil  at  the 
city  which  is  called  by  my  name,  and  should  ye  be  utterly  unpun- 
ished? Ye  shall  not  be  unpunished  :  for  I  will  call  for  a  sword  upon 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts.  Therefore 
prophesy  thou  against  them  all  these  words,  and  say  unto  them,  The 
LORD  shall  roar  from  on  high,  and  utter  his  voice  from  his  holy  habi- 
tation; he  shall  mightily  roar  against  his  fold;  he  shall  give  a  shout, 
as  they  that  tread  the  grapes,  against  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth.  A  noise  shall  come  even  to  the  end  of  the  earth;  for  the 
LORD  hath  a  controversy  with  the  nations,  he  will  plead  with  all 
flesh;  as  for  the  wicked,  he  will  give  them  to  the  sword,  saith  the 
LORD. 


392  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

The  Doom  Songs  then  are  the  pourings  out  of  "  the  cup  of  the 
Lord's  Fury"  against  particular  kingdoms,  such  as  the  words 
of  Jeremiah  suggest.  Their  prototype  is  the  primitive  Curse  on 

Canaan: 

Cursed  be  Canaan : 

A  servant  of  servants  shall  he  be  unto  his  brethren. 

They  are  indignant  denunciations  of  idolatry  and  vice ;  prophetic 
pictures  of  doom  to  come  in  spite  of  all  appearances  to  the 
contrary ;  realistic  pictures  of  overthrow  and  desolation ;  wails  as 
over  the  dead,  soon  changing  to  taunts  from  victims  to  a  fallen 
oppressor.  They  have  been  compared  to  the  Satires  and  Philip- 
pics of  other  literatures  :  and  it  is  true  that  they  give  scope  to  the 
literary  impulses  which  in  other  cases  have  produced  these  forms. 
But  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  tone  between  the  Biblical  denun- 
ciation and  its  secular  counterparts.  I  would  rather  say  that  the 
Doom  Song  is  to  the  Satire  what  Tragedy  is  to  Comedy;  the 
Doom  Song  is  to  the  Philippic  what  Poetry  is  to  Prose. 

Coming  to  particulars,  we  may  note  the  difference  between 

the  brief,  oracular,  almost  enigmatic  utterances  which  seem  to  be 

the  earlier  forms  of  doom,  and  the  elaborate  invectives  of  later 

times,  upon  which  all  the  resources  of  literature  are  concentrated. 

Of  the  earlier  type  there  can  be  no  better  illustration  than  a 

series  of  four  '  Oracles '  in  Isaiah,  which,  however 
oracuia^Dooms     obscure  their  historic  references  may  be,  seem  by 

their  internal  resemblances  to  constitute  a  unity. 
Their  interest  lies,  not  so  much  in  the  events  they  foreshadow,  as 

The  watchman-  m  t^ie  wav  ^ey  &ve  Poetic  realisation  to  the 
Isaiah  xxi-  prophetic  attitude.  They  are  bound  together  by 
xxil'  M  underlying  imagery  of  a  prophet  keeping  vigil  on 

the  eastern  boundary  of  the  holy  land,  with  his  watchman  still 
further  in  advance,  both  peering  through  the  darkness  of  future 
history  to  catch  the  first  signs  of  the  Lord's  dealing  with  his  foes. 
The  first  oracle  has  its  title  from  the  "wilderness  of  the  sea,"  that 
is,  the  region  of  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  brings  out  the  fall  of 
the  empire  that  is  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  prophet's  world. 


THE  DOOM  SONG  393 

It  has  the  usual  mingling  of  prose  and  lyric  verse  :  the  prose  puts 
the  prophet's  position  of  vigil,  and  the  agitation  which  his  vision 
produces  in  his  own  heart,  while  snatches  of  verse  convey  gleams 
of  vision,  or  words  of  the  watchman,  or  even  the  call  of  the  Lord 
to  the  destroying  foe. 


THE   ORACLE   OF  THE   WILDERNESS  OF  THE  SEA 

As  whirlwinds  in  the  South  sweep  through, 

It  cometh  from  the  wilderness, 
From  a  terrible  land ! 

A  grievous  vision  is  declared  unto  me;  the  treacherous  dealer  dealeth 
treacherously,  and  the  spoiler  spoileth. 

"Go  up,  OElam; 

Besiege,  O  Media; 
All  the  sighing  thereof  will  I  make  to  cease." 

fherefore  are  my  loins  rilled  with  anguish;  pangs  have  taken  hold 
upon  me,  as  the  pangs  of  a  woman  in  travail :  I  am  pained  so  thajt  I 
cannot  hear,  I  am  dismayed  so  that  I  cannot  see.  My  heart  panteth, 
horror  hath  affrighted  me:  the  twilight  that  I  desired  hath  been 
turned  into  trembling  unto  me. 

"  They  prepare  the  table, 
They  spread  the  carpets, 
They  eat,  they  drink : 
Rise  up,  ye  princes,  anoint  the  shield." 

For  thus  hath  the  LORD  said  unto  me,  Go,  set  a  watchman;  let  him 
declare  what  he  seeth :  and  when  he  seeth  a  troop,  horsemen  in 
pairs,  a  troop  of  asses,  a  troop  of  camels,  he  shall  hearken  diligently 
with  much  heed.  And  he  cried  as  a  lion : 

THE  WATCHMAN 

O  Lord,  I  stand  continually  upon  the  watch-tower  in  the  day-time, 

And  am  set  in  my  ward  whole  nights : 
And,  behold,  here  cometh  a  troop  of  men, 

Horsemen  in  pairs. 


394  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

THE  LORD 
Babylon  is  fallen, 

Is  fallen; 
And  all  the  graven  images  of  her  gods  are  broken  upon  the  ground. 

* 

O  thou  my  threshing,  and  the  corn  of  my  floor :  that  which  I  have 
heard  from  the  LORD  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel,  have  I  declared 
unto  you. 

The  second  oracle  is  not  associated  with  any  incident,  but 
seems  entirely  devoted  to  bringing  out  the  prophetic  attitude  of 
vigil.  A  voice  out  of  the  lower  region  of  Mount  Seir  calls  to  the 
watchman  in  his  wilderness  station  for  tidings :  the  sentinel,  as  if 
repeating  the  formula  of  the  watch,  replies  that  the  regular  suc- 
cession of  day  and  night  is  broken  by  no  tidings  as  yet,  the 
enquirer  must  ask  again. 


THE   ORACLE   OF  SILENCE 

VOICE  OUT  OF  SEIR 

Watchman,  what  of  the  night? 
Watchman,  what  of  the  night? 

THE  WATCHMAN 

The  morning  cometh, 

And  also  the  night : 
If  ye  will  enquire,  enquire  ye; 

Come  ye  again. 

The  third  oracle  sees  another  storm-cloud  about  to  break  from 
the  north ;  and  bids  nomad  peoples  get  ready  food  for  the  fugi- 
tives of  Kedar,  whom  they  will  find  before  the  night  just  beginning 
is  over. 

3 

THE   ORACLE  AT  EVENING 

In  the  thickets  at  evening  shall  ye  lodge, 
O  ye  travelling  companies  of  Dedanites. 


THE  DOOM  SONG  395 

Unto  him  that  is  thirsty  bring  ye  water; 

Ye  inhabitants  of  the  land  of  Tema, 

Meet  the  fugitives  with  your  bread. 

For  they  fled  away  from  the  swords, 

From  the  drawn  sword,  and  from  the  bent  bow, 

And  from  the  grievousness  of  war. 

For  thus  hath  the  Lord  said  unto  me,  Within  a  year,  according  to 
the  years  of  an  hireling,  and  all  the  glory  of  Kedar  shall  fail :  and 
the  residue  of  the  number  of  the  archers,  the  mighty  men  of  the 
children  of  Kedar,  shall  be  few :  for  the  LORD,  the  God  of  Israel, 
hath  spoken  it.1 

But  the  larger  proportion  of  the  Doom  Songs  are  more  elaborate 
outpourings.  They  have  contributed  a  distinct  form  to  literature  : 
at  least,  it  is  more  in  prophecy  of  this  type  than 
in  any  other  kind  of  literature  that  we  find  what  I 
have  already  called  the  '  Doom  form.' 2  This  com- 
bines a  Divine  monologue,  denouncing  doom,  with  lyric  inter- 
ruptions which  celebrate,  realise,  or  otherwise  dwell  upon  the 
word  which  Deity  is  speaking.  It  has  in  a  former  chapter3  been 
illustrated  at  full  length  in  the  Book  of  Zephaniah ;  and  I  have 
explained  how  the  two  elements  of  such  a  prophecy  are  differen- 
tiated by  a  rhythmic  difference,  such  as  in  my  own  editing  I 
suggest  to  the  eye  by  the  conventional  forms  of  verse  and  prose. 
The  interrupting  passages  are  for  the  most  part  impersonal  lyrics : 
they  break  in  upon  the  speech  of  God  much  in  the  way  that,  in 
an  oratorio  of  Bach,  meditative  chorales,  not  assigned  to  the 
personages  of  the  story,  break  in  upon  the  dramatic  action. 
Occasionally,  however,  personal  speakers  are  found  for  the  lyric 

passages.    Thus,  in  Jeremiah's  Doom  of  Babylon, 

Jeremiah  l-li 
after  various  lyric  outbursts  triumphing  over  stricken 

Babylon,  or  scorning  the  idols  of  the  heathen,  we  find  one  passage 
in  which  Babylon's  former  victims  are  heard  bemoaning  their 
oppression  in  dialogue. 

i  The  fourth  is  an  obscure  and  much-disputed  passage.    See  Isaiah  (in  Modern 
Reader's  Bible),  pages  72,  235. 

a  See  above,  page  123.  *  Chapter  IV,  page  124. 


3%  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

ZlON 

Nebuchadrezzar  the  king  of  Babylon  hath  devoured  me ! 

JERUSALEM 
He  hath  crushed  me  ! 

ZION 
He  hath  made  me  an  empty  vessel ! 

JERUSALEM 
He  hath  swallowed  me  up  like  a  dragon ! 

ZION 
He  hath  filled  his  maw  with  my  delicates ! 

JERUSALEM 
He  hath  cast  me  out ! 

ZION 
The  violence  done  to  me  and  to  my  flesh  be  upon  Babylon ! 

JERUSALEM 
My  blood  be  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Chaldea ! 

Therefore  thus  saith  the  LORD:  Behold  I  will  plead  thy  cause, 
and  take  vengeance  for  thee;  and  I  will  dry  up  her  sea,  and  make 
her  fountain  dry. 

The  work  of  Jeremiah  which  is  here  quoted  is  in  form  the  most 
elaborate  of  all  prophetic  compositions  of  this  kind :  a  sevenfold 
denunciation,  of  which  the  central  section  is  itself  a  sevenfold 
image  of  doom.  And  not  less  striking  than  the  prophecy  itself 
must  have  been  the  circumstances  of  its  first  promulgation,  as 
detailed  in  the  epilogue. 

And  Jeremiah  -wrote  in  a  book  all  the  evil  that  should  come  upon 
Babylon,  even  all  these  words  that  are  written  concerning  Babylon. 
And  Jeremiah  said  to  Seraiah,  When  thou  earnest  to  Babylon,  see  that 
thou  read  all  these  -words,  .  .  .  And  it  shall  be,  -when  thou  hast  made 
an  end  of  reading  this  book,  that  thou  shall  bind  a  stone  to  it,  and  cast 
it  into  the  midst  of  Euphrates :  and  thou  shall  say,  Thus  shall  Baby- 
lon sink,  and  shall  not  rise  again  because  of  the  evil  that  I  will  bring 
upon  her :  and  they  shall  be  weary. 


THE  DOOM  SONG  397 

The  matter  of  the  various  Doom  prophecies  is  denunciation, 
strongly  leavened  with  imagery.  The  destroying  enemy  appears 
as  strangers  come  to  fan,  or  waters  out  of  the  north,  or  smoke  out 
of  the  north ;  the  country  is  swept  with  the  besom  of  destruction, 
it  is  scattered  to  the  four  winds.  In  the  panic 
fathers  look  not  back  to  their  children  for  feeble- 
ness  of  hands,  fortresses  go  down  before  the  invader 
as  ripe  figs  are  shaken  from  a  tree.  Babylon  has  been  a  golden 
cup  in  the  Lord's  hand  to  make  the  nations  drunken  and  mad ; 
and  when  the  work  is  done  Babylon  is  suddenly  fallen  and  destroyed. 
She  has  been  a  destroying  mountain,  destroying  all  the  earth  :  but 
the  Lord  will  stretch  his  hand  upon  her,  and  roll  her  down  from 
the  rocks,  and  make  her  a  burnt  mountain  :  men  shall  not  take  of 
her  a  stone  for  a  corner,  but  she  shall  be  desolate  forever.  Babylon 
is  Jehovah's  '  battle-axe,'  with  which  he  will  break  in  pieces  the 
nations  :  but  the  '  hammer  of  the  whole  earth '  is  cut  asunder  and 
broken.  "  Moab  hath  been  at  ease  from  his  youth,  and  he  hath 
settled  on  his  lees,  and  hath  not  been  emptied  from  vessel  to 
vessel,  neither  hath  he  gone  into  captivity :  therefore  his  taste 
remaineth  in  him,  and  his  scent  is  not  changed."  Therefore  shall 
be  sent  to  him  those  that  pour  off,  and  they'shall  empty  his 
vessels,  and  break  the  bottles  in  pieces.  The  Assyrian  was  a 
cedar  in  Lebanon,  with  fair  branches  and  a  shadowing  shroud ; 
his  top  amid  the  clouds,  till  the  cedars  in  the  garden  of  God 
could  not  hide  him ;  the  waters  nourished  him,  the  deep  made 
him  to  grow ;  the  fowls  of  heaven  made  their  nests  in  his  boughs, 
and  all  great  nations  dwelt  under  his  shadow.  But  he  is  delivered 
into  the  hands  of  the  mighty,  the  terrible  have  cut  him  off  and  left 
him  ;  his  branches  are  fallen  over  mountains  and  valleys,  and  his 
broken  boughs  along  the  watercourses ;  all  the  fowls  of  heaven 
dwell  upon  his  ruin.  When  Babylon  goes  down  hell  from  beneath 
is  moved  to  meet  him  ;  the  shades  of  the  kings  of  the  nations  rise 
from  their  thrones  to  gaze  at  the  mighty  oppressor  become 
weak  like  themselves.  The  glorious  seat  of  empire  turns  to  utter 
desolation. 


398  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

It  shall  never  be  inhabited, 

Neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in  from  generation  to  generation : 

Neither  shall  the  Arabian  pitch  tent  there; 

Neither  shall  shepherds  make  their  flocks  to  lie  down  there. 

But  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  lie  there; 

And  their  houses  shall  be  full  of  doleful  creatures; 
And  ostriches  shall  dwell  there, 
And  satyrs  shall  dance  there. 

And  wolves  shall  cry  in  their  castles, 

And  jackals  in  the  pleasant  palaces : 

And  her  time  is  near  to  come, 

And  her  days  shall  not  be  prolonged. 

Perhaps  the  most  wide-reaching  and  many-sided  of  the  Doom 
Songs  is  Ezekiel's  burden,  or  rather  succession  of  burdens,  against 
Doom  of  Tyre  tne  maritime  metropolis  of  the  ancient  world,  —  the 
Ezekiel  xzvi-  city  of  Tyre.  God  is  against  Tyre,  and  the  nations 
shall  overwhelm  her  like  the  waves  of  a  rising  sea : 
they  shall  wash  down  walls  and  towers,  and  even  her  very  dust, 
until  Tyre  has  become  a  bare  rock,  a  place  for  the  spreading  of 
nets  in  the  midst  of  the  sea.  From  imagery  the  Song  changes  to 
picture  :  and  in  successive  sentences  we  see  Nebuchadrezzar's 
advance :  the  daughter  fortresses  on  the  confines  are  destroyed, 
mounts  and  battering  engines  are  before  the  mother  city,  the  very 
dust  of  his  march  smothers  the  beautiful  site,  at  the  mere  sound 
of  his  horsemen  and  chariots  the  gates  are  shaken  down ;  horse- 
hoofs  deface  the  streets,  the  sword  slays,  the  obelisks  of  strength 
are  thrown  down,  riches  spoiled,  pleasant  houses  made  rubbish 
heaps :  Tyre  becomes  a  silent  and  bare  rock,  a  place  for  the 
spreading  of  nets.  Then  all  the  princes  of  the  sea  come  down 
from  their  thrones,  and  lay  aside  their  robes,  and  strip  off  their 
broidered  garments :  they  clothe  themselves  with  tremblings,  as 
they  raise  the  wail  over  the  renowned  city,  won  from  the  sea,  and 
the  terror  of  all  that  haunt  it.  For  God  shall  bring  up  the  deep 
upon  her,  and  the  great  waters  shall  cover  her,  and  he  will  bring 
her  down  with  them  that  descend  into  the  pit,  and  will  make  her 


THE  DOOM  SONG  399 

to  dwell  in  the  nether  parts  of  the  earth,  in  the  places  that  are 
desolate  of  old ;  though  she  be  sought  for,  yet  shall  she  never  be 
found  again.  Then  another  strain  of  denunciation  commences, 
and  with  prolonged  enumeration  brings  out  poetically  the  world- 
wide enterprise  of  the  wealthy  port.  Tyre  is  represented  in  the 
form  of  a  ship,  and  the  various  races  with  which  she  has  dealings 
make  their  contributions  to  its  perfection. 

Thou,  O  Tyre,  hast  said,  I  am  perfect  in  beauty.  Thy  borders  are 
in  the  heart  of  the  seas,  thy  builders  have  perfected  thy  beauty. 
They  have  made  all  thy  planks  of  fir  trees  from  Senir :  they  have 
taken  cedars  from  Lebanon  to  make  a  mast  for  thee.  Of  the  oaks 
of  Bashan  have  they  made  thine  oars ;  they  have  made  thy  benches 
of  ivory  inlaid  in  boxwood,  from  the  isles  of  Kittim.  Of  fine  linen 
with  broidered  work  from  Egypt  was  thy  sail,  that  it  might  be  to 
thee  for  an  ensign;  blue  and  purple  from  the  isles  of  Elishah  was 
thine  awning.  The  inhabitants  of  Zidon  and  Arvad  were  thy  rowers : 
thy  wise  men,  O  Tyre,  were  in  thee,  they  were  thy  pilots.  The 
ancients  of  Gebal  and  the  wise  men  thereof  were  in  thee  thy  calkers : 
all  the  ships  of  the  sea  with  their  mariners  were  in  thee  to  occupy 
thy  merchandise.  Persia  and  Lud  and  Put  were  in  thine  army,  thy 
men  of  war:  they  hanged  the  shield  and  helmet  in  thee;  they  set 
forth  thy  comeliness.  The  men  of  Arvad  with  thine  army  were  upon 
thy  walls  round  about,  and  the  Gammadim  were  in  thy  towers :  they 
hanged  their  shields  upon  thy  walls  round  about ;  they  have  per- 
fected thy  beauty. 

This  is  only  a  fragment  of  the  long-sustained  enumeration  :  for 
when  mention  is  made  of  the  merchants  who  traffic  with  this  Ship 
of  Tyre  all  nations  of  the  civilised  world  appear,  and  every  kind 
of  merchandise  and  riches  is  detailed,  until  the  successive  sen- 
tences have  accumulated  a  conception  of  inexhaustible  wealth. 
Then  comes  the  shock  of  change.  The  Ship  that  makes  such  a 
thing  of  glory  in  the  heart  of  the  seas  suffers  wreck. 

Thy  rowers  have  brought  thee  into  great  waters :  the  east  wind 
hath  broken  thee  in  the  heart  of  the  seas.  Thy  riches,  and  thy 
wares,  thy  merchandise,  thy  mariners,  and  thy  pilots,  thy  calkers,  and 
the  occupiers  of  thy  merchandise,  and  all  thy  men  of  war,  that  are 


400  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

in  thee,  with  all  thy  company  which  is  in  the  midst  of  thee,  shall  fall 
into  the  heart  of  the  seas  in  the  day  of  thy  ruin.  At  the  sound  of 
the  cry  of  thy  pilots  the  suburbs  shall  shake. 

After  fresh  lamentations  of  the  sea-faring  world  over  their  chief, 
the  tempest  of  denunciation  glances  upon  the  prince  of  Tyre,  who 
says  "  he  is  a  god,  he  sits  in  the  seat  of  God  in  the  heart  of  the 
seas  "  :  but  he  is  a  man,  and  not  God,  in  the  hand  of  him  that 
woundeth  him ;  and  he  shall  die  the  death  of  the  uncircumcised. 
Then  the  strain  of  denunciation  gathers  to  a  climax.  Tyre  sealeth 
up  the  sum,  full  of  wisdom  and  perfect  in  beauty.  Tyre  was  in 
Eden  the  garden  of  God ;  every  precious  stone  was  her  covering ; 
she  was  the  cherub  overshadowing  the  mercy  seat :  till  unright- 
eousness was  found  in  her.  Multitude  of  traffic  filled  her  with 
violence ;  she  has  been  cast  out  as  profane ;  fire  from  the  midst 
of  her  has  devoured  her ;  she  has  been  turned  to  ashes  in  the  sight 
of  all  beholders ;  she  shall  exist  no  more. 

If  the  burden  of  Ezekiel  against  Tyre  be  a  typical  example  of 
this  department  of  literature,  we  may  take  from  the  same  prophet 
Doom  of  Egypt  an°ther  Doom  Song  which  is  unique.  The  idea 
Ezekiel  xxxii.  underlying  it  is  the  same  thought  we  have  already 
I7"3a  cited  from  Isaiah, —  that  of  the  kingdoms  among 

the  dead  receiving  the  newly  fallen  empire  in  the  gloomy  under- 
world. The  form  of  this  burden  is  a  Wail  or  Dirge.  It  is  an 
extreme  example  of  the  overlapping  of  verse  and  prose  which  I  have 
illustrated  in  so  many  branches  of  Hebrew  literature  :  monotonous 
prose  recitative  carries  on  the  thread  of  description,  and  is  broken 
by  strongly  rhythmic  lines,  that  leave  the  impression  at  once  of 
varying  and  of  recurring  with  the  regularity  of  a  refrain.  I  cite 
this  Song  in  full,  and  then  our  notice  of  the  literature  of  Doom 
will  have  been  carried  sufficiently  far. 


Son  of  man,  wail  for  the  multitude  of  Egypt,  and  cast  them  down, 
even  her,  and  the  daughters  of  the  famous  nations, 


THE  DOOM  SONG  401 

Unto  the  nether  parts  of  the  earth, 
With  them  that  go  down  into  the  pit. 

Whom  dost  thou  pass  in  beauty?  go  down,  and  be  thou  laid  with 
the  uncircumcised.     They  shall  fall  in  the  midst 

Of  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword : 

She  is  delivered  to  the  sword : 

Draw  her  away  and  all  her  multitudes. 

The  strong  among  the  mighty  shall  speak  to  him  out  of  the  midst  of 
hell  with  them  that  help  him : 

They  are  gone  down, 
They  lie  still, 
Even  the  uncircumcised, 
Slain  by  the  sword. 

Asshur  is  there  and  all  her  company : 

His  graves  are  round  about  him : 
All  of  them  slain, 
Fallen  by  the  sword : 

Whose  graves  are  set  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  pit,  and  her  com- 
pany is  round  about  her  grave : 

All  of  them  slain, 

Fallen  by  the  sword, 

Which  caused  terror  in  the  land  of  the  living. 

There  is  Elam  and  all  her  multitude  round  about  her  grave : 

All  of  them  slain, 

Fallen  by  the  sword, 

Which  are  gone  down  uncircumcised 

Into  the  nether  parts  of  the  earth, 

which  caused  their  terror  in  the  land  of  the  living,  and  have  borne 
their  shame  — 

With  them  that  go  down  to  the  pit. 

They  have  set  her  a  bed  in  the  midst  of  the  slain  with  all  her 
multitude ; 


K)2  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

Her  graves  are  round  about  her; 
All  of  them  uncircumcised, 
Slain  by  the  sword; 

for  their  terror  was  caused  in  the  land  of  the  living,  and  they  have 
borne  their  shame  — 

With  them  that  go  down  to  the  pit; 

He  is  put  in  the  midst  of  them  that  be  slain. 

There  is  Meshech,  Tubal  and  all  her  multitude : 

Her  graves  are  round  about  her : 
All  of  them  uncircumcised, 
Slain  by  the  sword; 

for  they  caused  their  terror  in  the  land  of  the  living;  and  shall  they 
not  lie  with  the  mighty  that  are  fallen  of  the  uncircumcised? 

Which  are  gone  down  to  hell, 

With  their  weapons  of  war, 

And  have  laid  their  swords  under  their  heads, 

And  their  iniquities  are  upon  their  bones : 

for  they  were  the  terror  of  the  mighty  in  the  land  of  the  living;  but 
thou  shalt  be  broken  in  the  midst  of  the  uncircumcised,  and  shalt 

lie  — 

With  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword. 

There  is  Edom,  her  kings  and  all  her  princes,  which  for  all  their 
might  are  laid  — 

With  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword: 
They  shall  lie  with  the  uncircumcised, 
And  with  them  that  go  down  to  the  pit. 

There  be  the  princes  of  the  north,  all  of  them,  and  all  the  Zidonians, 

Which  are  gone  down  with  the  slain; 
for  all  the  terror  which  they  caused  by  their  might  they  are  ashamed; 

And  they  lie  uncircumcised    • 

With  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword, 

And  bear  their  shame 

With  them  that  go  down  to  the  pit. 


THE  DOOM  SONG  403 

Pharaoh  shall  see  them,  and  shall  be  comforted  over  all  his  multi- 
tude :  even  Pharaoh  and  all  his  army, 

Slain  by  the  sword  (saith  the  Lord  GOD), 
For  I  have  put  his  terror  in  the  land  of  the  living : 
And  he  shall  be  laid  in  the  midst  of  the  uncircumcised, 
With  them  that  are  slain  by  the  sword : 

even  Pharaoh  and  all  his  multitude,  saith  the  Lord  GOD. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

FORMS  OF  PROPHETIC  LITERATURE  :  THE  RHAPSODY 

PROPHECY  in  one  of  its  aspects  may  be  described  as  the  phi- 
losophy of  history  erected  into  a  drama.     But  both  the  terms  of 
this  description  must  be  understood  in  a  special 

The  Prophetic        sense.     Philosophy  acts  through  its  instrument  of 
Rhapsody:  Gen-          n        •  ,         •     •  i  •  •,-    •-,  i 

erai  Conception  reflection  when  it  interprets  history  into  intelligible 
theory,  or  catches  the  drift  of  a  passing  crisis. 
But  the  prophets  carry  their  scheme  of  faith  with  them  into  the 
events  they  observe.  It  is  faith  in  that  which  the  Old  Testament 
expresses  by  the  word  '  Judgment ' :  the  eternal  controversy  be- 
tween Good  and  Evil,  between  God's  people  and  idolatrous  nations, 
between  the  '  remnant '  and  the  godless  mass  of  Israelites ;  and 
this  carries  with  it  the  correlative  idea  of  a  golden  age,  placed  in 
the  future  and  not  the  past,  when  the  controversy  should  culminate 
in  a  Messianic  reign  of  peace.  To  harmonise  with  this  principle 
of  Judgment  the  working  of  events  is  great  part  of  the  prophetic 
function.  And,  as  one  mode  of  conveying  their  conceptions,  the 
prophets  display  the  incidents  themselves  before  our  imagination 
working  towards  their  goal  with  the  realistic  clearness  of  drama. 
But  upon  examination  such  prophetic  compositions  are  found  to 
go  far  beyond  the  machinery  of  dramatic  literature,  and  to  borrow 
from  all  other  literary  departments  special  modes  of  treatment,  to 
be  blended  together  into  that  most  highly  wrought  and  spiritual  of 
literary  forms  which  is  here  called  the  Rhapsody. 

I  desire  to  explain  this  in  detail :  but  first  it  may  be  well  to  take 
an  illustration.     The  simplest  example  of  the  form  of  prophecy 

404 


THE  RHAPSODY  405 

under  consideration  is  Habakkuk's  Rhapsody  of  the  Chaldeans. 
Its  exact  date  is.  a  question  for  historical  experts ; 
for  literary  interpretation  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  Rhapsody  of  the 
it  belongs  to  the  period  when  the  Chaldean  power  Habakkuk 
first    looms  as  a  terror  on  the   political   horizon. 
Under  such  terror  the  first  instinct  of  the  devout  would  be  to 
think  of  national  corruption  unpunished  at  home.     But  prophetic 
insight   must   go   further.     If  the   Chaldeans  —  a  cruel,  godless 
embodiment  of  might  without  right  —  were  to  be  God's  instrument 
of  judgment,  would  not  the  instrument  be  far  worse  than  that 
against  which  it  was  used  ?    It  is  this  perplexity  which  is  presented 
before  us  by  Habakkuk  in  dramatic  dialogue. 

The  Prophet.  —  O  LORD,  how  long  shall  I  cry,  and  thou  wilt  not 
hear?  I  cry  unto  thee  of  violence,  and  thou  wilt  not  save.  Why 
dost  thou  shew  me  iniquity,  and  cause  me  to  look  upon  perverseness  ? 
for  spoiling  and  violence  are  before  me :  and  there  is  strife,  and 
contention  riseth  up.  Therefore  the  law  is  slacked,  and  judgement 
doth  never  go  forth :  for  the  wicked  doth  compass  about  the  right- 
eous; therefore  judgement  goeth  forth  perverted. 

God.  —  Behold  ye  among  the  nations,  and  regard,  and  wonder 
marvellously :  for  I  work  a  work  in  your  days,  which  ye  will  not 
believe  though  it  be  told  you.  For,  lo,  I  raise  up  the  Chaldeans, 
that  bitter  and  hasty  nation ;  which  march  through  the  breadth  of 
the  earth,  to  possess  dwelling  places  that  are  not  theirs.  They  are 
terrible  and  dreadful :  their  judgement  and  their  dignity  proceed 
from  themselves.  Their  horses  also  are  swifter  than  leopards,  and 
are  more  fierce  than  the  evening  wolves;  and  their  horsemen  bear 
themselves  proudly :  yea,  their  horsemen  come  from  far ;  they  fly  as 
an  eagle  that  hasteth  to  devour.  They  come  all  of  them  for  violence; 
their  faces  are  set  eagerly  as  the  east  wind;  and  they  gather  captives 
as  the  sand.  Yea,  he  scoffeth  at  kings,  and  princes  are  a  derision 
unto  him:  he  derideth  every  stronghold;  for  he  heapeth  up  dust, 
and  taketh  it.  Then  shall  he  sweep  by  as  a  wind,  and  shall  pass 
over,  and  be  guilty;  even  he  whose  might  is  his  God. 

The  Prophet.  —  Art  not  thou  from  everlasting,  O  LORD  my  God, 
mine  Holy  One?  thou  diest  not.  O  LORD,  thou  hast  ordained  him 
for  judgement;  and  thou,  O  Rock,  hast  established  him  for  correc- 
tion. Thou  that  art  of  purer  eyes  than  to  behold  evil,  and  that 


406  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

canst  not  look  upon  perverseness,  wherefore  lookest  them  upon  them 
that  deal  treacherously,  and  boldest  thy  peace,  when  the  wicked 
swalloweth  up  the  man  that  is  more  righteous  than  he;  and  makest 
men  as  the  fishes  of  the  sea,  as  the  creeping  things,  that  have  no 
ruler  over  them?  He  taketh  up  all  of  them  with  the  angle,  he 
catcheth  them  in  his  net,  and  gathereth  them  in  his  drag :  therefore 
he  rejoiceth  and  is  glad.  Therefore  he  sacrificeth  unto  his  net,  and 
burneth  incense  unto  his  drag;  because  by  them  his  portion  is  fat, 
and  his  meat  plenteous.  Shall  he  therefore  empty  his  net,  and  not 
spare  to  slay  the  nations  continually? 

The  perplexity  has  been  fully  opened  :  the  point  has  been  reached 
where  a  solution  may  be  looked  for.     Additional  literary  force  is 
given  to  this  solution  by  delay ;  there  is  a  pause,  and 
the  prophet  will  retire  to  his  watch-tower   to  wait  the 
answer  of  God.     The  answer,  when  it  comes,  is  ushered  in  by 
many  phrases  of  emphasis,  —  it  is  to  be  written,  to  be 
made  plain,  the  '  vision,'  though  it  seem  to  tarry,  is  really 
hasting  to  its  appointed  time.     What  then  is  the  Divine  solution 
to  the  prophet's  trouble?     As  so  often  happens  in  literature  of 
this  type,  the  central  point  of  the  whole  prophecy  is  conveyed 
under  the  form  of  imagery,  —  in  this  case  the  imagery  of  intoxica- 
tion.    The  haughty  irresistibility  of  the  Chaldean  is  no  more  than 
the   vinous  elation  that  goes   before  the   tottering  and 
falling;   he  is  'puffed   up,'  he  cannot  go  straight,  the 
treacherous  dealing  of  wine  has  given  him  the  haughtiness  that 
will  not  abide,  and  the  insatiable  appetite  of  hell.     Then  the  fall 
that  is  to  come  is  made  present  to  our  imaginations  by  a  sudden 
breaking  out  of  the  Taunt-Song  of  the  oppressed  nations  over 
their  fallen  tyrant.     In  lyric  sequence  four  woes  are  denounced, 
all  celebrating  the  same  theme  —  the  pride  and  fall  of  the  Chal- 
dean, but  celebrating  it  under  four  different  images.    The 
first  woe  puts  the  image  of  usury :  Chaldean  aggrandise- 
ment has  been  a  mounting  up  of  borrowed  property,  and  there 
shall  rise  up  suddenly  those  who  will  exact  usury.    In  the 
second  woe  the  image  is  of  house-building :   the  tyrant 
has  been  building  his  own  shame  into  the  house  he  thought  to 


THE  RHAPSODY  407 

make  so  high  above  all  evil ;  now  it  is  finished  the  stone  cries  out 

of  the  wall  and  the  beam  out  of  the  timber  answers  it.     In  the 

third  woe  the  image  changes  to  fortification  :  the  deep 

purposes  of  Jehovah  suffer  a  city  to  be  built  with  blood 

and  ramparted  with  iniquity,  just  that  its  burning  may  fill  earth 

and  sea  with  the  light  of  his  judgment.    The  fourth  woe 

rests  on  the  regular  prophetic  metaphor  —  the  cup  of 

the  Lord's  fury,  handed  by  the  Chaldean  to  the  other  nations,  and 

drunk  by  the  Chaldean  in  his  turn.     Then  a  final  woe 

ii.  18-30 

goes  to  the  root  of  the  whole  evil :    the  Chaldean  has 
been  led  astray  by  his  lying  idols,  all  covered  with  gold  and  silver, 
but  with  no  breath  in  them.     But  Jehovah  in  his  holy  temple  is 
the  true  teacher  of  the  nations :  let  all  the  earth  sit  in  silence  at 
his  feet. 

The  third  section  of  this  rhapsody  is  the  most  magnificent  of 
Biblical  odes :  the  promised  intervention  of  Deity  is  no 
longer  contemplated  as  a  future  event,  but  is  realised 
as  immediately  present.     After  a  Prelude  of  trembling  anxiety  — 

O  LORD,  I  have  heard  the  report  of  thee,  and  am  afraid : 
O  LORD,  revive  thy  work  in  the  midst  of  the  years, 
In  the  midst  of  the  years  make  it  known : 
In  wrath  remember  mercy !  — 

the  Vision  bursts  upon  the  prophet.  Its  antistrophic  form  is  an 
exact  reflex  of  the  thought.  The  strophe  presents  all  nature 
convulsed  with  the  approach  of  Deity. 

God  cometh  from  Teman, 

And  the  Holy  One  from  Mount  Paran. 

His  glory  covereth  the  heavens, 

And  the  earth  is  full  of  his  praise. 

And  his  brightness  is  as  the  light; 

He  hath  rays  coming  forth  from  his  hand; 

And  there  is  the  hiding  of  his  power. 

Before  him  goeth  the  pestilence, 

And  fiery  bolts  go  forth  at  his  feet. 

He  standeth  and  shaketh  the  earth; 


408  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

I 

He  beholdeth,  and  driveth  asunder  the  nations : 

And  the  eternal  mountains  are  scattered, 

The  everlasting  hills  do  bow; 

His  ways  are  everlasting. 

I  see  the  tents  of  Cushan  in  affliction; 

The  curtains  of  the  land  of  Midian  do  tremble. 

Then  the  antistrophe  puts  the  question :    Is  it   merely  against 
inanimate  nature  that  this  power  is  being  manifested? 

Is  the  LORD  displeased  against  the  rivers? 

Is  thine  anger  against  the  rivers,  or  thy  wrath  against  the  sea, 

That  thou  dost  ride  upon  thine  horses, 

Upon  thy  chariots  of  salvation? 

Thy  bow  is  made  quite  bare, 

Sworn  are  the  chastisements  of  thy  word. 

Thou  dost  cleave  the  earth  with  rivers; 

The  mountains  see  thee  and  are  afraid; 

The  tempest  of  waters  passeth  by; 

The  deep  uttereth  his  voice, 

And  lifteth  up  his  hands  on  high; 

The  sun  and  moon  stand  still  in  their  habitation 

At  the  light  of  thine  arrows  as  they  go, 

At  the  shining  of  thy  glittering  spear. 

Thou  dost  march  through  the  land  in  indignation, 

Thou  dost  thresh  the  nations  in  anger. 

At  length   the  epode   may  answer  the   question  with  the  true 
meaning  of  the  judgment  that  is  descending. 

Thou  art  come  for  the  salvation  of  thy  people, 

For  the  salvation  of  thine  anointed  : 

Thou  dost  smite  off  the  head  from  the  house  of  the  wicked, 

Laying  bare  the  foundation  even  unto  the  neck. 

Thou  dost  pierce  with  his  own  staves  the  head  of  his  warriors : 

(They  came  as  a  whirlwind  to  scatter  me, 

Their  rejoicing  was  as  to  devour  the  poor  secretly:) 

Thou  didst  tread  the  sea  with  thine  horses,  the  surge  of  mighty  waters. 

The  theophany  is  completed  :  there  remains  a  postlude  in  which 
the  seer  trembles  through  terror  into  confidence. 


THE  RHAPSODY  409 

I  heard,  and  my  belly  trembled, 

My  lips  quivered  at  the  voice; 

Rottenness  entered  into  my  bones,  and  I  trembled  in  my  place : 

That  I  should  rest  waiting  for  the  day  of  trouble, 

When  he  that  shall  invade  them  in  troops  cometh  up  against  the  people. 

For  though  the  fig  tree  shall  not  blossom, 

Neither  shall  fruit  be  in  the  vines; 

The  labour  of  the  olive  shall  fail, 

And  the  fields  shall  yield  no  meat; 

The  flock  shall  be  cut  off  from  the  fold, 

And  there  shall  be  no  herd  in  the  stalls : 

Yet  I  will  rejoice  in  the  LORD, 

I  will  joy  in  the  God  of  my  salvation. 

Jehovah,  the  Lord,  is  my  strength, 

And  he  maketh  my  feet  like  hind's  feet, 

And  will  make  me  to  walk  upon  mine  high  places. 

Simple  as  this  prophecy  is,  it  has  exhibited  all  that  is  essential 
in  rhapsodic  literature  :  a  problem  of  current  history  has  been 

stated  in  the  form  of  dramatic  dialogue,  solved  in 

The  Rhapsody  as 

the  mingled  recitative  and  rhythm  of  the  Doom  an  enlargement 

form,  and  then  the  solution  is  realised  in  the  full  of  dramatic 

mi  •  e  treatment 

splendour  of  a  lyric   ode.      This   department  of 

prophecy  includes  some  of  the  most  intricate  and  obscure  litera- 
ture in  the  whole  Bible.  But  in  all  cases  there  is  an  enlargement 
of  dramatic  machinery  by  the  fusion  with  it  of  other  kinds  of 
literary  treatment.  A  similar  fusion  has  taken  place  in  the  com- 
panion art  of  music  ;  and  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  Oratorio 
and  the  Cantata  will  understand  how  a  dramatic  action  may  be 
maintained,  though  particular  movements  in  it  are  in  lyric  or 
meditative  form. 

What  exactly  is  the  mental  experience  of  a  spectator  watching 
a  drama?  He  has  a  movement  of  events  brought  home  to  him, 
not  by  any  narrative  or  explanation,  but  by  the  dialogue  of  the 
personages  taking  part  in  the  incidents,  assisted  by  changes  in  the 
scene  before  his  eyes.  The  reader  of  prophetic  drama  has  history 
presented  to  him  as  moving  in  the  direction  of  Divine  judgment. 


410  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

But  the  stage  on  which  such  movement  takes  place  is  nothing  less 
than  the  whole  universe.  Its  changing  scenery  must  be  conveyed 
to  him,  rarely  in  vision,  mainly  by  description.  It  is  not  the 
description  that  belongs  to  Epic  poetry  and  deals  with  incidents 
in  the  past.  It  is  what  may  be  called  Scenic  Description,  such  as 
speaks  in  the  present  tense  with  the  vividness  of  one  who  beholds 
what  he  tells,  and  yet  the  personality  of  no  spectator  is  interposed 
between  the  reader  and  the  scene.  Or  it  is  Prophetic  Descrip- 
tion, that  uses  present  or  future  indifferently :  for  what  God,  or 
his  prophetic  mouthpiece,  foretells  is  as  objectively  real  to  the 
imagination  as  if  it  were  visibly  present.  Similarly,  the  machinery 
of  dialogue  needs  enlargement  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
prophetic  drama.  Besides  actual  dialogue  we  have  the  Soliloquy 
or  Monologue,  whether  of  the  Divine  Being  or  others ;  in  par- 
ticular, alternating  monologues  —  say,  of  the  righteous  and  wicked 
from  opposite  regions  —  produce  a  literary  effect  closely  akin  to 
dialogue.  Another  element  of  dialogue  is  the  Divine  Address : 
the  omnipresence  of  Deity  extends  to  those  with  whom  he  speaks, 
and  his  call  to  them  makes  them  at  once  part  of  the  scene.  This 
consideration  is  more  important  than  might  at  first  be  thought; 
we  shall  find  the  longest  scene  in  prophecy  to  have  no  speaker 
but  the  Divine  Being,  whose  alternate  addresses  to  the  nations 
and  to  Israel  keep  both  present  before  us  to  the  end.  And  in  a 
less  degree  the  same  effect  attaches  to  other  addresses :  at  the 
opening  of  Joel  the  cries  of  Husbandmen,  Revellers,  Priests,  to 
one  another  to  come  and  weep  serve  to  bring  these  classes  into 
the  scene  of  the  poem.  Again,  the  prophet,  besides  being  the 
mouthpiece  of  God,  remains  a  spectator  of  his  own  drama,  and 
his  comments,  spoken  to  earth  or  heaven,  form  a  part  of  the 
scenes.  'Voices,'  again,  may  join  in  the  dialogue,  yet  not  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  the  personality  of  those  who  speak  continuously 
present :  or  yet  more  impersonal  '  Cries '  may  serve  a  temporary 
purpose  in  the  drama.  As  an  element  of  dialogue  more  abstract 
still  we  have  Lyric  Songs  or  Responses :  not  such  Choral  songs 
as  in  Habakkuk's  prophecy  were  spoken  by  the  oppressed  nations, 


THE   RHAPSODY  411 

but  impersonal  lyrics,  like  those  used  in  Zephaniah  to  answer  or 
second  the  announcements  of  Deity,  or  to  interrupt  the  continuity 
of  movement  by  bursts  of  praise  or  lament. 

In  all  these  ways  the  machinery  of  drama  is  enlarged  and  spir- 
itualised to  make  it  the  vehicle  of  prophecy.  It  borrows  lyric 
treatment  and  oratorical  discourse ;  it  does  the  work  of  philoso- 
phy ;  even  that  which  is  the  antithesis  of  drama,  description,  ap- 
pears in  a  modified  form  to  serve  a  scenic  purpose.  And,  while 
the  constant  object  is  dramatic  realisation,  the  transitions  in  this 
prophetic  literature  from  dramatic  to  other  literary  forms  are  so 
frequent  and  rapid  that  they  seem,  not  so  much  to  be  blended, 
as  to  be  fused  together.  If  the  various  types  of  literary  treatment 
might  be  supposed  to  be  so  many  different  colours  of  thought, 
then  this  prophetic  drama  would  be  the  white  light  made  by  the 
merging  of  all  these  colours  in  one.  The  term  '  drama,'  then, 
seems  to  me  altogether  inadequate  for  such  a  specialised  form 
of  literature.  A  more  appropriate  name  would  be  found  in  the 
'  Rhapsody,'  which  poetry  and  music  alike  reserve  as  something 
specially  exalted  and  free  from  limitations  of  form. 

The  Prophecy  of  Joel  makes  a  single  Rhapsody  of  the  Locust 
Plague.     The  idea  of  locusts,  singly  so  insignificant,  so  terribly 
destructive  in  the  mass,  lends  itself  readily  to  poetic         ,g  Rnapsody 
treatment ;  and  the  prophet,  starting  perhaps  from   of  the  Locust 
some  contemporary  visitation  of  this  kind,  idealises  Plas^e 
it  into  mystic  and  awful  forces  of  destruction,  under  the  descrip- 
tion of  which  the  original  idea  can  be  dimly  traced.     On  this  as 
basis  he  works  up  a  conception  of  advancing  judgment :  first  an 
immediate  crisis,  and  then  the  final  judgment  in  which  all  nations 
are  involved.     And,  like  the  leit-motif  of  a  musical  work,  "the 
great  and  terrible  Day  of  the  Lord  "  runs  through        Movement 
the  whole  as  a  refrain.    Those  who  are  accustomed  a  continuous 
to   literary  technicalities  will  be  struck  with  the  Advance 
beautiful  movement  of  this  work  :  the  seven  stages  into  which  its 
action  falls  advance  regularly  to  a  crisis,  and  then,  as  with  the 


412  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

figure  of  an  arch,  turn  round,  the  later  corresponding  to  the 
earlier,  until  the  final  stage  is  seen  as  a  reversal  of  the  first.  The 
accompanying  figure  may  convey  this  to  the  eye.1  [Commence 
to  read  at  the  bottom.] 

4.    Relief  and  Restoration 
ii.  18-27 

3.   At  the  last  moment  5.  Afterward :  Israel  spiritualised  — 

Repentance  the  Nations  summoned 

ii.  12-17  to  Judgment 

ii.  28-iii.  8 

a.   Judgment  visibly  Ad-  6.  Advance  to  the  Valley 

vancing:  CRISIS  of  Decision:  CRISIS 

ii.  i-n  iii.  9-16 

I.  The  Land  of  Israel  des-  7.    The   Holy   Mountain 

olate  and  mourning  and  eternal  Peace 

i  iii.  17-21 

The  prophecy  opens  with  distress  and  wailing.  Calls  to  lament 
bring  before  us  old  men  witnessing  to  children  and  children's 

The  Land  of  children  of  devastation  such  as  their  fathers  never 
Israel  desolate  knew ;  drinkers  of  wine  awaking  from  their  stupor 
and  mourning  to  howl  for  the  desoiating)  strong-toothed  foe  that 

has  wasted  the  vine  and  blanched  the  fig  tree;  husbandmen 
howling  under  the  shame  and  languishing  that  sits  upon  the  crops 
and  the  trees  of  the  field,  and  upon  the  helpless  sons  of  men  ; 
the  ministers  of  the  altar  clothing  themselves  with  sackcloth  as  the 
meal-offering  and  drink-offering  fails  from  the  house  of  God.  The 
different  groups  of  mourners  draw  together  into  a  solemn  assembly 
of  the  whole  land,  crying  with  one  voice,  "Alas  for  the  day  of 
the  LORD  at  hand  ! "  and  chaunting  of  seeds  shrivelled  under  the 
clods,  garners  broken  down,  corn  bowed  with  shame,  cattle  per- 
plexed and  flocks  panting  beside  the  dry  watercourses  and  burnt 
pastures. 

1  I  have  argued  for  an  exactly  similar  figure  as  underlying  St.  John's  Revelation 
[Modern  Reader's  Bible,  pages  xxi,  193].  Compare  also  the  Jeremiah  volume, 
page  230. 


THE  RHAPSODY  413 

But  there  is  no  relief:  the  action  intensifies.  A  trumpet  blast 
of  alarm  from  the  mountains  darts  into  every  trembling  heart  the 
consciousness  that  the  Day  of  the  Lord  has  come  T  . 

a.  Judgment 

nigh  !  The  day  seems  to  have  broken  with  clouds  visibly  advanc- 
and  thick  darkness  for  the  colours  of  its  dawn ;  ing:  Cnsis 
and  they  know  that  the  destroying  foe  will  be  great  and  strong, 
such  as  has  never  been  known  before,  neither  shall  there  be  any 
like  them.  The  advancing  doom  can  just  be  discerned  by  the 
destruction  it  works  :  fires  spreading  from  it  in  all  directions  :  as 
it  were  the  garden  of  Eden  before  it,  and  behind  it  a  desolate 
wilderness.  Straining  eye  and  ear  can  dimly  make  out  now  the 
appearance  of  horses,  now  rattlings  like  chariots  crossing  the  moun- 
tain ridges,  now  cracklings  as  of  fire  in  stubble,  now  the  array  as 
of  an  ordered  army.  A  nearer  vision  reveals  pale  anguish  on  the 
one  side,  on  the  other  mighty  warriors  and  an  irresistible  march ; 
there  is  mystery  in  the  way  no  ranks  are  broken  with  the  inequali- 
ties of  the  ground,  none  swerves  for  a  moment  out  of  his  place ; 
the  encountering  weapons  actually  meet  them,  but  the  onward 
course  has  not  stopped.  Now  the  city  is  reached  with  a  bound,  is 
filled ;  the  earth  begins  to  quake,  the  heavens  are  all  dark  :  —  and 
the  long-expected  Voice  of  Jehovah  brings  the  certainty  that  this  is 
the  Day  of  the  Lord,  a  great  and  terrible  day ;  who  can  abide  it? 
Then  a  surprise  :  for  the  Voice  of  Jehovah  before  his  army 
speaks  of  a  time  yet  for  turning  to  the  Lord,  with  weeping  and 
fasting,  with  rending  of  the  heart  and  not  the  gar-  At  the  last 
ment,  to  a  God  who  is  gracious  and  full  of  compas-  moment  Repent- 
sion,  slow  to  anger,  and  plenteous  in  mercy,  one  a 
who  repenteth  him  of  the  evil.  And  a  response  begins  to  stir 
among  the  doomed  people  :  "  Who  knoweth  whether  he  will  not 
turn  and  repent,  and  leave  a  blessing  behind  him  ?  "  And  once 
more,  with  sound  of  trumpet,  there  is  a  solemn  assembly :  all  are 
gathered  together,  from  the  elder  to  the  child  at  the  breast,  the 
bridegroom  out  of  his  chamber  and  the  bride  out  of  her  closet : 
weeping  priests  and  ministers  of  the  altar  leading  the  cry  of 
"  Spare  thy  people,  O  LORD." 


414  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

The  turning-point  of  the  prophecy  has  been  reached  :  "  Then 
was  the  LORD  jealous  for  his  land,  and  had  pity  on  his  people." 
4.  Relief  and  In  the  words  of  Him  with  whom  future  and  present 
Restoration  are  the  same  we  have  pictured  a  relief  from  the 

impending  judgment :  the  northern  army  passing  on  to  its  own 
destruction  in  a  desert  between  the  seas,  the  land  awakening  to 
joy  after  fear,  as  pastures  spring  out  of  wilderness  and  the  trees 
again  yield  their  strength.  Relief  grows  to  restoration  :  the  former 
and  latter  rain  comes  down  each  in  its  season,  floors  and  fats 
overflow  till  the  loss  of  locust  and  caterpillar  has  been  repaired. 
Plenty  and  peace  abound,  with  praise  to  the  Lord  for  his  won- 
drous dealings,  and  confidence  that  Israel  shall  be  ashamed  no 
more. 

But  instead  of  this  being  an  end,  the  action  of  the  rhapsody 
continues  to  advance.  We  have  presented  before  us  an  '  after- 

Afterward-  ward ' :  *n  wn*cn  there  shall  be  a  pouring  out  of 
Israel  the  spirit  upon  the  sons  and  daughters  of  Israel, 

spiritualised  untjj  ^  an(j  yOung>  servant  and  handmaid,  are  all 

alike  endowed  with  prophecy  and  vision.  But  for  the  nations, 
darkened  sun  and  blood-stained  moon,  with  pillars  of  smoke,  with 
fire  and  blood,  give  warning  in  the  heavens  of  another  great  and 
terrible  Day  of  the  Lord :  a  day  of  pleading  with  the  nations,  in 

the  Nations  the  vallev  called  after  the  name  °f  Judgment»  for 

summoned  to  the  wrongs  they  have  done  to  the  captives  of  the 
judgment  Lord's  people.  And,  at  the  mention  of  living 

beings  bartered  and  sold  for  goods,  Divine  description  bursts  into 
Divine  remonstrance  with  the  men  of  Tyre  and  Zidon  and  Philistia, 
for  their  pillage  of  the  holy  things,  and  their  cruelty  to  the  chil- 
dren of  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  And  what  recompense  have  they 
to  make  to  the  adversary,  who  shall  swiftly  return  their  recom- 
pense upon  their  own  head? 

The   action   intensifies :    like   the   former  judg- 
6.  Advance  to 

the  valley  of  ment  on  Israel  this  final  doom  of  the  nations 
Decision:  Crisis  qujckens  jts  advance,  and  already  the  cries  of  the 

coming  contest  are  heard. 


THE  RHAPSODY  415 

Cod.  —  Proclaim  ye  this  among  the  nations;  prepare  war:  stir  up 
the  mighty  men;  let  all  the  men  of  war  draw  near,  let  them  come 
up.  Beat  your  plowshares  into  swords,  and  your  pruninghooks  into 
spears :  let  the  weak  say,  I  am  strong. 

Voices.  —  Haste  ye,  and  come,  all  ye  nations  round  about,  and 
gather  yourselves  together :  thither  cause  thy  mighty  ones  to  come 
down,  O  LORD. 

God.  —  Let  the  nations  bestir  themselves,  and  come  up  to  the 
valley  of  Jehoshaphat :  for  there  will  I  sit  to  judge  all  the  nations 
round  about. 

God  (to  the  Celestial  Hosts').  —  Put  ye  in  the  sickle,  for  the  harvest 
is  ripe:  come,  tread  ye;  for  the  winepress  is  full,  the  fats  overflow; 
for  their  wickedness  is  great. 

The  scene  is  before  us  of  multitudes  after   multitudes   in   the 
valley  of  decision :  the  Day  of  the  Lord  is  near,  and  this  is  the 
place  of  the  contest.     The  awful  crisis  is  veiled  from  us  :  sun  and 
moon  are  dark,  and  the  stars  withdraw  their  shining.     But  from 
Jerusalem  and  Mount  Zion  Jehovah  roars,  and  utters  a  voice  under 
which  the  heavens  and  earth  rock  to  and  fro,  all  save  the  strong- 
hold in  which  the  Lord's  people  are  held  in  safe  refuge.    The 
darkness  clears  away  to  reveal  a  final  scene  of  Je-       The  Hol 
hovah  comforting  his  people  from  his  holy  dwelling-   Mountain  and 
place  in  Zion.    The  mountains  drop  down  sweet  Etemal  Peace 
wine,  and  the  hills  flow  with  milk,  and  all  the  brooks  are  full  of 
waters,  while  fountains  from  the  house  of  the  Lord  carry  fertility 
to  the  valleys  around.     Over  the  ruins  of  guilty  Egypt  and  Edom 
Judah  towers,  an  abiding  habitation  ;  and  its  people  are  washed  with 
innocence  meet  for  the  people  of  the  Lord  that  dwelleth  in  Zion. 

In  this  rhapsody  of  Joel  the  movement  is  a  continuous  advance, 
and  its  seven  parts  are  seven  successive  stages  like  Acts  of  a  drama. 
But  I  have  several  times  had  to  remark  upon  an-   The  Pendulum 
other  type  of  movement  to  which  Hebrew  literature  Movement  in 
shows  attraction,  —  the  pendulum  movement,  which  RhaPSO( 
alternates  to  and  fro  between  two  topics  or  scenes.     This  pendu- 
lum movement  is  specially  characteristic  of  Prophecy.     It  will  be 


416  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

illustrated  in  the  next  example  I  bring  forward,  the  Rhapsody  of 

Judgment  and  Salvation,  which  covers  four  chap- 
Rhapsody  of  . 
judgment  and       ters  of  Jsatah.     The  three  sections  into  which  I 

Salvation  have  divided  this  composition  do  not  make  a  suc- 

Xsaiah  xxiv-vii  ....  .  , 

cession  in  time,  but  rather  an  advance  in  intensity  : 
,n  the  first  section  destruction  covers  the  earth,  in  the  second 
heaven  and  earth  are  involved,  while  the  third  section  presents  the 
same  destruction  in  its  moment  of  very  crisis.  But  the  real 
movement  of  this  rhapsody  is  the  pendulum  movement  of  alterna- 
tion :  —  an  alternation  between  successive  pictures  of  Doom  and 
Salvation.  From  the  prominence  of  this  alternation,  and  also 
because  of  the  rapidity  and  obscurity  of  the  transitions  in  this 
composition,  I  have  thought  it  desirable  to  print  it  in  full,  with 
proper  arrangement  of  parts.  The  sections  of  Judgment  are  dis- 
tinguished by  Roman,  those  of  Salvation  by  Italic  type.  I  quote 
the  Revised  Version  (text  or  margin)  exactly,  except  that  for  the 
formulae  commencing  speeches  (such  as,  "  In  that  day  shall  be 
said,"  etc.)  I  substitute  the  names  of  the  speakers  at  the  head  of 
the  speeches. 

ISAIAH'S 

RHAPSODY  OF  JUDGMENT  AND   SALVATION 
I 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

Behold,  the  LORD  maketh'the  earth  empty,  and  maketh  it  waste, 
and  turneth  it  upside  down,  and  scattereth  abroad  the  inhabitants 
thereof.  And  it  shall  be,  as  with  the  people,  so  with  the  priest;  as 
with  the  servant,  so  with  his  master;  as  with  the  maid,  so  with  her 
mistress;  as  with  the  buyer,  so  with  the  seller;  as  with  the  lender, 
so  with  the  borrower;  as  with  the  taker  of  usury,  so  with  the  giver 
of  usury  to  him.  The  earth  shall  be  utterly  emptied,  and  utterly 
spoiled :  for  the  LORD  hath  spoken  the  word. 

\ 

VISION 

The  earth  mourneth  and  fadeth  away,  the  world  languisheth  and 
fadeth  away,  the  lofty  people  of  the  earth  do  languish. 


THE  RHAPSODY  417 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

The  earth  also  is  polluted  under  the  inhabitants  thereof;  because 
they  have  transgressed  the  laws,  changed  the  ordinance,  broken  the 
everlasting  covenant.  Therefore  hath  the  curse  devoured  the  earth, 
and  they  that  dwell  therein  are  found  guilty :  therefore  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  earth  are  burned,  and  few  men  left. 

VISION  continued 

The  new  wine  mourneth,  the  vine  languisheth,  all  the  merry- 
hearted  do  sigh.  The  mirth  of  tabrets  ceaseth,  the  noise  of  them 
that  rejoice  endeth,  the  joy  of  the  harp  ceaseth. 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

They  shall  not  drink  wine  with  a  song;  strong  drink  shall  be  bitter 
to  them  that  drink  it. 

VISION  continued 

The  city  of  confusion  is  broken  down :  every  house  is  shut  up, 
that  no  man  may  come  in.  There  is  a  crying  in  the  streets  because 
of  the  wine;  all  joy  is  darkened,  the  mirth  of  the  land  is  gone.  In 
the  city  is  left  desolation,  and  the  gate  is  smitten  with  destruction. 


VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

For  thus  shall  it  be  in  the  midst  of  the  earth  among  the  peoples,  as 
the  shaking  of  an  olive  tree,  as  the  grape  gleanings  when  the  vintage 
is  done.  These  shall  lift  up  their  voice,  they  shall  shout. 

VOICES  FROM  THE   WEST 
For  the  Majesty  of  the  LORD  ! 

VOICES  FROM  THE  EAST 
Wherefore  glorify  ye  the  LORD  in  the  east! 

VOICES  FROM  THE    WEST 

Even  the  name  of  the  LORD,  the  God  of  Israel,  in  the  islet 
of  the  sea  ! 


418  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

VOICES  OF  THE  DOOMED 

From  the  uttermost  part  of  the  earth  have  we  heard  songs,  glory 
to  the  righteous.  But  I  said,  I  pine  away,  I  pine  away,  woe  is  me ! 
the  treacherous  dealers  have  dealt  treacherously;  yea,  the  treacher- 
ous dealers  have  dealt  very  treacherously. 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

Fear,  and  the  pit,  and  the  snare  are  upon  thee,  O  inhabitant  of 
earth.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  he  who  fleeth  from  the  noise 
of  the  fear  shall  fall  into  the  pit;  and  he  that  cometh  up  out  of  the 
midst  of  the  pit  shall  be  taken  in  the  snare. 


II 

VISION 

For  the  windows  on  high  are  opened,  and  the  foundations  of  the 
earth  do  shake.  The  earth  is  utterly  broken,  the  earth  is  clean  dis- 
solved, the  earth  is  moved  exceedingly. 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

The  earth  shall  stagger  like  a  drunken  man,  and  shall  be  moved 
to  and  fro  like  a  hut;  and  the  transgression  thereof  shall  be  heavy 
upon  it,  and  it  shall  fall,  and  not  rise  again.  And  it  shall  come  to 
pass  in  that  day,  that  the  LORD  shall  punish  the  host  of  the  high 
ones  on  high,  and  the  kings  of  the  earth  upon  the  earth.  And  they 
shall  be  gathered  together,  as  prisoners  are  gathered  in  the  pit,  and 
shall  be  shut  up  in  the  prison,  and  after  many  days  shall  they  be 
visited.  Then  the  moon  shall  be  confounded,  arid  the  sun  ashamed. 


VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

For  the  LORD  of  hosts  shall  reign  in  Mount  Zion,  and  in  Jerusa* 
lent,  and  before  his  elders  shall  be  glory. 

SONG  OF  THE  ELDERS 

0  LORD,  thou  art  my  God ;  I  -will  exalt  thee; 

1  will  praise  thy  name  ; 

For  thou  hast  done  wonderful  things, 

Even  counsels  of  old,  in  faithfulness  and  truth. 


THE  RHAPSODY  419 

For  thou  hast  made  of  a  city  an  heap  ; 

Of  a  de fenced  city  a  ruin  : 

A  palace  of  strangers  to  be  no  city  ; 

It  shall  never  be  built. 

Therefore  shall  the  strong  people  glorify  the». 

The  city  of  the  terrible  nations  shall  fear  thet. 

For  thou  hast  been  a  strong  hold  to  the  poor, 

A  strong  hold  to  the  needy  in  his  distress, 

A  refuge  from  the  storm, 

A  shadow  from  the  heat, 

When  the  blast  of  the  terrible  ones 

Is  as  a  storm  against  the  -wall. 

As  the  heat  in  a  dry  place 

Shalt  thou  bring  down  the  noise  of  strangers  ; 

As  the  heat  by  the  shadow  of  a  cloud, 

The  song  of  the  terrible  ones  shall  be  brought  low. 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

And  in  this  mountain  shall  the  LORD  of  hosts  make  unto  all  peo- 
ples a  feast  of  fat  things,  a  feast  of  wines  on  the  lees,  of  fat  things  full 
of  marrow,  of  wines  on  the  lees  well  refined.  And  he  will  destroy  in 
this  mountain  the  face  of  the  covering  that  is  cast  over  all  peoples,  and 
the  veil  that  is  spread  over  all  nations. 

VOICES  OF  THE  SAVED 

He  hath  swallowed  up  death  for  ever ;  and  the  Lord  GOD  will 
wipe  away  tears  from  off  all  faces  ;  and  the  reproach  of  his  people 
shall  he  take  away  from  off  all  the  earth :  for  the  LORD  hath  spoken 
it. 

SONG  IN  THAT  DAY 

Lo,  this  is  our  God ; 

We  have  waited  for  him, 
And  he  will  save  us  : 

This  is  the  LORD  ; 

We  have  waited  for  him,  we  will  be  glad 
And  rejoice  Hi  his  salvation. 


*20  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

For  in  this  mountain  shall  the  hand  of  the  LORD  rest,  and  Moab 
shall  be  trodden  down  in  his  place,  even  as  straw  is  trodden  down  in 
the  water  of  the  dunghill.  And  he  shall  spread  forth  his  hands  in 
the  midst  thereof,  as  he  that  swimmeth  spreadeth  forth  his  hands  to 
swim :  and  he  shall  lay  low  his  pride  together  with  the  craft  of  his 
hands.  And  the  fortress  of  the  high  fort  of  thy  walls  hath  he  brought 
down,  laid  low,  and  brought  to  the  ground,  even  to  the  dust. 

SONG  IN  THE  LAND  OF  JUDAH 

We  have  a  strong  city  ; 

Salvation  will  he  appoint  for  walls  and  bulwarks. 

Open  ye  the  gates, 

That  the  righteous  nation  which  keepeth  truth  may  enter  in. 

Thou  wilt  keep  him  in  perfect  peace, 

Whose  mind  is  stayed  on  thee,  because  he  trusteth  in  thee. 

Trust  ye  in  the  LORD  for  ever  : 

For  in  the  LORD  JEHOVAH  is  a  Rock  of  Ages. 

For  he  hath  brought  down  them  that  dwell  on  high,  the  lofty  city : 

He  layeth  it  low,  he  layeth  it  low,  even  to  t/ie  ground; 

He  bringeth  it  even  to  the  dust. 

The  foot  shall  tread  it  down  ; 

Even  the  feet  of  the  poor, 

And  the  steps  of  the  needy. 

The  way  of  the  just  is  uprightness  : 
Thou  that  art  upright  dost  direct  the  path  of  the  just. 
Yea,  in  the  way  of  thy  judgements,  0  LORD, 
Have  we  waited  for  thee  ; 
To  thy  name  and  to  thy  memorial 
Is  the  desire  of  our  soul. 

With  my  soul  have  I  desired  thee  in  the  night ; 

Yea,  with  my  spirit  within  me  will  I  seek  thee  early  : 

For  when  thy  judgements  are  in  the  earth, 

The  inhabitants  of  the  world  learn  righteousness. 

Let  favour  be  shewed  to  the  wicked, 

Yet  will  he  not  learn  righteousness  ; 

In  the  land  of  uprightness  will  he  deal  wrongfully. 

And  will  not  behold  the  majesty  of  the  LORD. 


THE  RHAPSODY  421 

III 

PROPHETIC  SPECTATOR 

LORD,  thy  hand  is  lifted  up,  yet  they  see  not;  but  they  shall  see 
thy  zeal  for  the  people,  and  be  ashamed;  yea,  fire  shall  devour  thine 
adversaries. 

VOICES  OF  THE  SAVED 

LORD,  thou  wilt  ordain  peace  for  us  :  for  thou  hast  also  wrought 
all  our  works  for  us.  O  LORD  our  God,  other  lords  beside  thee  have 
had  dominion  over  us  ;  but  by  thee  only  will  we  make  mention  of 
thy  name. 

PROPHETIC  SPECTATOR 

The  dead  live  not,  the  deceased  rise  not:  therefore  hast  thou 
visited  and  destroyed  them,  and  made  all  their  memory  to  perish. 

VOICES  OF  THE  SAVED 

Thou  hast  increased  the  nation,  O  LORD,  thou  hast  increased  the 
nation  ;  thou  art  glorified :  thou  hast  enlarged  all  the  borders  of  the 
land. 

PROPHETIC  SPECTATOR 

LORD,  in  trouble  have  they  visited  thee,  they  poured  out  a  prayer 
when  thy  chastening  was  upon  them. 

VOICES  OF  THE  DOOMED 

Like  as  a  woman  with  child,  that  draweth  near  the  time  of  her 
delivery,  is  in  pain  and  crieth  out  in  her  pangs;  so  have  we  been 
before  thee,  O  LORD.  We  have  been  with  child,  we  have  been  in 
pain,  we  have  as  it  were  brought  forth  wind ;  we  have  not  wrought 
any  deliverance  in  the  earth ;  neither  have  inhabitants  of  the  world 
been  born. 

GOD   (TO  THE  SAVED) 

Thy  dead  shall  live :  my  dead  bodies  shall  arise.  Awake  and 
sing,  ye  that  dwell  in  the  dust :  for  thy  dew  is  as  the  dew  of  herbs, 
and  the  earth  shall  cast  forth  the  dead.  Come,  my  people,  enter  thou 
into  thy  chambers,  and  shut  thy  doors  about  thee  :  hide  thyself  for  a 
little  moment,  until  the  indignation  be  overpast.  For,  behold,  the 
LORD  cometh  forth  out  of  his  place  to  punish  the  inhabitants  of  tht 


422  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

earth  for  their  iniquity :  the  earth  also  shall  disclose  her  blood,  and 
shall  no  more  cover  her  slain. 


VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

In  that  day  the  LORD  with  his  sore  and  great  and  strong  sword 
shall  punish  leviathan  the  swift  serpent,  and  leviathan  the  crooked 
serpent;  and  he  shall  slay  the  dragon  that  is  in  the  sea. 

SONG  IN  THA T  DAY 

A  Vineyard  of  wine,  (sing  ye  of  it?) 

I  the  LORD  do  keep  it;  I  will  water  it  every  moment : 
Lest  any  hurt  it,  I  will  water  it  night  and  day. 

Fury  is  not  in  me  : 

Would  that  the  briers  and  thorns  were  against  me  in  battle, 
I  would  march  upon  them,  I  would  burn  them  together. 

Or  else  let  him  take  hold  of  my  strength, 
That  he  may  make  peace  with  me  : 
Yea,  let  him  make  peace  with  me. 

In  days  to  come  shall  Jacob  take  root; 
Israel  shall  blossom  and  bud  : 
And  they  shall  Jill  the  fact  of  the  world  with  fruit. 


PROPHETIC  SPECTATOR 

Hath  he  smitten  him  as  he  smote  them  that  smote  him  .?  or  is  he 
slain  according  to  the  slaughter  of  them  that  were  slain  by  him  .? 
In  measure,  when  thou  sendest  her  away,  thou  dost  contend  -with  her ; 
he  hath  removed  her  with  his  rough  blast  in  the  day  of  the  fast  wind. 
Therefore  by  this  shall  the  iniquity  of  Jacob  be  purged,  and  this  is  all 
the  fruit  to  take  away  his  sin  ;  when  he  maketh  all  the  stones  of  the 
altar  as  chalkstones  that  are  beaten  in  sunder,  so  that  the  Asherim 
and  the  sun-images  shall  rise  no  more. 

VISION 

For  the  defenced  city  is  solitary,  an  habitation  deserted  and  for- 
saken, like  the  wilderness :  there  shall  the  calf  feed,  and  there  shal] 
he  lie  down,  and  consume  the  branches  thereof. 


THE  RHAPSODY  423 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

When  the  boughs  thereof  are  withered,  they  shall  be  broken  off ; 
the  women  shall  come  and  set  them  on  fire :  for  it  is  a  people  of  no 
understanding;  therefore  he  that  made  them  will  not  have  compas- 
sion upon  them,  and  he  that  formed  them  will  show  them  no  favour. 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  the  LORD  shall  beat  out 
his  corn,  from  the  flood  of  the  River  unto  the  brook  of  Egypt,  and  ye 
shall  be  gathered,  one  by  one,  O  ye  children  of  Israel 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  a  great  trumpet  shall  be 
blown  :  and  they  shall  come  which  were  ready  to  perish  in  the  land 
of  Assyria,  and  they  that  were  outcasts  in  the  land  of  Egypt ;  and 
they  shall  worship  the  Lord  in  the  Holy  Mountain  of  Jerusalem. 

Such  is  the  Prophetic  Rhapsody  in  its  full  development.  Its 
effect  is  that  of  a  World  Drama ;  to  attain  this  effect  all  literary 
forms  concur  in  one,  and  even  description  has  a  subordinate  place 
in  representation.  As  the  Rhapsody  is  a  form  of  literature  special 
to  Hebrew  Prophecy,  it  may  be  interesting  to 
enquire  into  its  origin  as  a  distinct  literary  form. 
On  the  one  side  it  may  be  regarded  as  an  extension 
of  Drama.  In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  noted  prophecies  which 
were  equivalent  to  brief  dramatic  dialogues,  presenting  the  Divine 
yearning  and  the  repentance  of  the  rebellious  people.  Such  dia- 
logues were,  however,  abstract  and  general,  with  no  note  of  par- 
ticular time  or  place.  The  Hebrew  people  have  strong  dramatic 
feelings,  but  no  theatre  in  which  to  give  them  vent ;  accordingly, 
when  dialogue  becomes  determined  by  indications  of  time  and 
place,  such  as  in  other  literatures  would  be  transferred  to  a  theatric 
scene,  these  in  Hebrew  literature  can  be  conveyed  only  by  descrip- 
tion. The  addition  of  this  scenic  description  to  dialogue  converts 
drama  into  rhapsody. 

An  illustration  of  a  composition  differing  from  dramatic  dialogue 
by  no  more  than  this  addition  of  description  is  afforded  by  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  compositions  of  Jeremiah,  that  on  the 
Drought.  Its  speakers  are  God,  the  Prophet,  and  Repentant 


424  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

Israel.1  Its  dramatic  action  consists  in  the  gradual  moving  of  God 
from  judgment  to  mercy;  and  dramatic  effect  is  carried  to  the 
extent  of  representing  Jehovah  as  a  justly  incensed  God,  who  for 
a  long  time  will  not  so  much  as  look  at  the  sinful  nation,  but 
addresses  them  only  through  the  Prophet :  at  last  he  speaks  his 
reproofs,  and  finally  his  mercy,  to  his  people  directly.  To  all  this 
dialogue  is  prefixed  a  prelude  picturing  the  drought  which  is  the 
scene  and  occasion  of  the  whole. 

Jeremiah  xiv-xv        RHAPSODY  OF  THE  DROUGHT 

SCENIC 

Judah  mourneth,  and  the  gates  thereof  languish  ;  they  sit  in  black 
upon  the  ground ;  and  the  cry  of  Jerusalem  is  gone  up. 

And  their  nobles  send  their  little  ones  to  the  waters  :  they  come  to 
the  pits  and  find  no  water ;  they  return  with  their  vessels  empty : 
they  are  ashamed  and  confounded,  and  cover  their  heads. 

Because  of  the  ground  which  is  chapt,  for  that  no  rain  hath  been  in 
the  land,  the  plowmen  are  ashamed,  they  cover  their  heads. 

Yea,  the  hind  also  in  the  field  calveth,  and  forsaketh  her  young, 
because  there  is  no  grass.  And  the  wild  asses  stand  on  the  bare 
heights,  they  pant  for  air  like  jackals  ;  their  eyes  fail,  because  there  is 
no  herbage. 

1  It  is  usually  interpreted  as  a  Dialogue  of  Intercession,  with  no  speakers  except 
God  and  the  Prophet.  No  explanation  of  it  is  entirely  free  from  difficulty,  but  the 
one  given  in  the  text  seems  to  me  the  least  difficult,  (i)  A  great  objection  to  other 
views  is  the  conclusion  :  it  seems  impossible,  without  straining,  to  make  the  Prophet 
guilty  of  any  fault  (mistrust,  etc.,  is  suggested)  for  which  he  should  be  invited  to 
repent.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  see  why  the  Prophet  should  speak  xv.  15-18  after  the  full 
assurance  given  him  in  xv.  n.  On  the  other  hand  the  Divine  reply  (xv.  19)  seems 
a  natural  reference  to  the  '  purged  remnant '  which  in  all  prophecy  appears  as  the 
only  portion  of  the  nation  to  be  saved.  No  doubt  verses  20,  21  refer  to  Jeremiah : 
but  they  are  outside  the  rhapsody,  being  an  epilogue  added  to  this  as  to  other 
important  prophecies  (compare  i.  18  and  vi.  27).  (2)  In  two  speeches  which  I 
assign  to  the  Repentant  People  (xiv.  7-9,  19-22)  the  plural  is  uniformly  used :  and 
the  brief  prologue  has  prepared  us  to  hear  Judah  mourning.  It  is  true  that  the 
third  speech  (xv.  15-18)  uses  the  singular :  but  that  immediately  follows  the  speech 
of  God  (12-14)  m  which  the  singular  is  used,  and  which  is  undoubtedly  addressed 
to  the  People  and  not  to  the  Prophet.  (3)  The  ordinary  view  ignores  the  marked 
distinction  between  "The  Lord  said  unto  me,"  in  xiv.  n  (contrast  10),  xiv.  14 
(compare  17),  xv.  i,  as  compared  with  the  usual  formula,  "  The  Lord  said,"  in  xv. 
ii  (and  19)  and  the  beautiful  dramatic  effect  which  this  suggests. 


THE  RHAPSODY  42* 

REPENTANT  ISRAEL 

Though  our  iniquities  testify  against  us,  work  thou  for  thy  name's 
sake,  O  LORD:  for  our  backslidings  are  many;  we  have  sinned 
against  thee.  O  thou  hope  of  Israel,  the  saviour  thereof  in  the  time 
of  trouble,  why  shouldest  thou  be  as  a  sojourner  in  the  land,  and 
as  a  wayfaring  man  that  turneth  aside  to  tarry  for  a  night?  Why 
shouldest  thou  be  as  a  man  astonied,  as  a  mighty  man  that  cannot 
save  ?  yet  thou,  O  LORD,  art  in  the  midst  of  us,  and  we  are  called  by 
thy  name;  leave  us  not. 

THE  PROPHET 

Thus  saith  the  LORD  unto  this  people,  Even  so  have  they  loved  to 
wander;  they  have  not  refrained  their  feet :  therefore  the  LORD  doth 
not  accept  them;  now  will  he  remember  their  iniquity,  and  visit 
their  sins. 

THE  LORD  (to  the  Prophet) 

Pray  not  for  this  people  for  their  good.  When  they  fast,  I  will 
not  hear  their  cry;  and  when  they  offer  burnt  offering  and  oblation, 
I  will  not  accept  them :  but  I  will  consume  them  by  the  sword,  and 
by  the  famine,  and  by  the  pestilence. 

THE  PROPHET 

Ah,  Lord  GOD  !  behold,  the  prophets  say  unto  them,  Ye  shall  not 
see  the  sword,  neither  shall  ye  have  famine;  but  I  will  give  you 
assured  peace  in  this  place. 

THE  LORD  (to  the  Prophet) 

The  prophets  prophesy  lies  in  my  name :  I  sent  them  not,  neither 
have  I  commanded  them,  neither  spake  I  unto  them :  they  prophesy 
unto  you  a  lying  vision,  and  divination,  and  a  thing  of  nought,  and 
the  deceit  of  their  own  heart.  Therefore  thus  saith  the  LORD  con- 
cerning the  prophets  that  prophesy  in  my  name,  and  I  sent  them  not, 
yet  they  say,  Sword  and  famine  shall  not  be  in  this  land :  By  sword 
and  famine  shall  those  prophets  be  consumed.  And  the  people  to 
whom  they  prophesy  shall  be  cast  out  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem 
because  of  the  famine  and  the  sword;  and  they  shall  have  none 
to  bury  them,  their  wives,  nor  their  sons,  nor  their  daughters :  for 
I  will  pour  their  wickedness  upon  them.  And  thou  shall  say  this 
word  unto  them,  Let  mine  eyes  run  down  with  tears  night  and  day, 


\26  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

and  let  them  not  cease;  for  the  virgin  daughter  of  my  people  is 
broken  with  a  great  breach,  with  a  very  grievous  wound.  If  I  go 
forth  into  the  field,  then  behold  the  slain  with  the  sword !  and  if  I 
enter  into  the  city,  then  behold  them  that  are  sick  with  famine !  for 
both  the  prophet  and  the  priest  go  about  in  the  land  and  have  no 
knowledge. 

REPENTANT  ISRAEL 

Hast  thou  utterly  rejected  Judah  ?  hath  thy  soul  loathed  Zion  ? 
Why  hast  thou  smitten  us,  and  there  is  no  healing  for  us  ?  We 
looked  for  peace,  but  no  good  came;  and  for  a  time  of  healing,  and 
behold  dismay!  We  acknowledge,  O  LORD,  our  wickedness,  and 
the  iniquity  of  our  fathers :  for  we  have  sinned  against  thee.  Do 
not  abhor  us,  for  thy  name's  sake;  do  not  disgrace  the  throne  of 
thy  glory:  remember,  break  not  thy  covenant  with  us.  Are  there 
any  among  the  vanities  of  the  heathen  that  can  cause  rain  ?  or  can 
the  heavens  give  showers  ?  art  not  thou  he,  O  LOR&  our  God  ? 
therefore  we  will  wait  upon  thee;  for  thou  hast  done  all  these  things. 


THE  LORD  (to  the  Prophet} 

Though  Moses  and  Samuel  stood  before  me,  yet  my  mind  could 
not  be  toward  this  people :  cast  them  out  of  my  sight,  and  let  them 
go  forth.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  when  they  say  unto  thee, 
Whither  shall  we  go  forth  ?  then  thou  shalt  tell  them,  Thus  saith  the 
LORD:  Such  as  are  for  death,  to  death;  and  such  as  are  for  the 
sword,  to  the  sword;  and  such  as  are  for  the  famine,  to  the  famine; 
and  such  as  are  for  captivity,  to  captivity.  And  I  will  appoint  over 
them  four  kinds,  saith  the  LORD  :  the  sword  to  slay,  and  the  dogs  to 
tear,  and  the  fowls  of  the  heaven,  and  the  beasts  of  the  earth,  to 
devour  and  to  destroy.  And  I  will  cause  them  to  be  tossed  to  and 
fro  among  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth,  because  of  Manasseh  the 
son  of  Hezekiah  king  of  Judah,  for  that  which  he  did  in  Jerusalem. 
For  who  shall  have  pity  upon  thee,  O  Jerusalem  ?  or  who  shall 
bemoan  thee  ?  or  who  shall  turn  aside  to  ask  of  thy  welfare  ?  Thou 
hast  rejected  me,  saith  the  LORD,  thou  art  gone  backward :  therefore 
have  I  stretched  out  my  hand  against  thee,  and  destroyed  thee :  I 
am  weary  with  repenting.  And  I  have  fanned  them  with  a  fan  in 
the  gates  of  the  land;  I  have  bereaved  them  of  children,  I  have 
destroyed  my  people ;  they  have  not  returned  from  their  ways.  Their 
widows  are  increased  to  me  above  the  sand  of  the  seas :  I  have 


THE  RHAPSODY  427 

brought  upon  them  against  the  mother  of  the  young  men  a  spoiler 
at  noonday :  I  have  caused  anguish  and  terrors  to  fall  upon  her  sud- 
denly. She  that  hath  borne  seven  languisheth;  she  hath  given  up 
the  ghost;  her  sun  is  gone  down  while  it  was  yet  day;  she  hath  been 
ashamed  and  confounded :  and  the  residue  of  them  will  I  deliver  to 
the  sword  before  their  enemies,  saith  the  LORD. 

THE  PROPHET 

Woe  is  me,  my  mother,  that  thou  hast  borne  me  a  man  of  strife 
and  a  man  of  contention  to  the  whole  earth !  I  have  not  lent  on 
usury,  neither  have  men  lent  to  me  on  usury;  yet  every  one  of 
them  doth  curse  me. 

THE  LORD  (to  the  Prophet) 

Verily  I  will  strengthen  thee  for  good;  verily  I  will  intercede  for 
thee  with  the  enemy  in  the  time  of  evil  and  in  the  time  of  affliction. 
—  (  To  Israel.}  —  Can  one  break  iron,  even  iron  from  the  north  and 
brass  ?  Thy  substance  and  thy  treasures  will  I  give  for  a  spoil  with- 
out price,  and  that  for  all  thy  sins,  even  in  all  thy  borders.  And  I 
will  make  thee  to  serve  thine  enemies  in  a  land  which  thou  knowest 
not:  for  a  fire  is  kindled  in  mine  anger,  which  shall  burn  upon 
you. 

REPENTANT  ISRAEL 

O  LORD,  thou  knowest :  remember  me,  and  visit  me,  and  avenge 
me  of  my  persecutors;  take  me  not  away  in  thy  longsuffering. 
Know  that  for  thy  sake  I  have  suffered  reproach.  Thy  words  were 
found,  and  I  did  eat  them ;  and  thy  words  were  unto  me  a  joy  and 
the  rejoicing  of  mine  heart :  for  I  am  called  by  thy  name,  O  LORD 
God  of  hosts.  I  sat  not  in  the  assembly  of  them  that  make  merry, 
nor  rejoiced :  I  sat  alone  because  of  thy  hand ;  for  thou  hast  filled 
me  with  indignation.  Why  is  my  pain  perpetual,  and  my  wound 
incurable,  which  refuseth  to  be  healed  ?  wilt  thou  indeed  be  unto  me 
as  a  deceitful  brook,  as  waters  that  fail  ? 

THE  LORD 

Therefore,  if  thou  return,  then  will  I  bring  thee  again,  that  thou 
mayest  stand  before  me;  and  if  thou  take  forth  the  precious  from 
the  vile,  thou  shall  be  as  my  mouth :  they  shall  return  unto  thee,  but 
thou  shalt  not  return  unto  them. 


428  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

EPILOGUE.  —  To  the  Prophet 

And  I  will  make  thee  unto  this  people  a  fenced  brasen  wall;  and 
they  shall  fight  against  thee,  but  they  shall  not  prevail  against  thee : 
for  I  am  with  thee  to  save  thee,  and  to  deliver  thee,  saith  the  LORD. 
And  I  will  deliver  thee  out  of  the  hand  of  the  wicked,  and  I  will 
redeem  thee  out  of  the  hand  of  the  terrible. 

If,  on  the  one  hand,  we  thus  see  dramatic  prophecy  passing 
into  rhapsody  by  the  addition  of  an  element  of  description,  we 
can,  looking  to  the  other  side,  observe  how  discourse  can  sway 
in  the  direction  of  dramatic  machinery,  and  so  become  rhapsodic. 
I  have  before  drawn  attention  to  such  a  prophecy  as  that  of 
Zephaniah,  in  which  the  continuity  of  Divine  speech  is  broken 
by  outbursts  of  impersonal  lyrics,  exulting  in  delivered  Zion,  or 
triumphing  over  the  threatened  foe.  Again,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand how  the  fervour  of  prophetic  oratory  can  suddenly  change  to 
realising  the  predicted  future  as  if  immediately  present.  The 
lengthy  discourse  in  which  Isaiah  describes  the  Assyrian  as  the 
rod  of  God's  anger,  and  pictures  the  reign  of  peace  that  would 
follow  the  Assyrian's  overthrow,  is  throughout  couched  in  the 
future  tense  :  at  just  a  single  point  the  future  tense  gives  place  to 
the  realistic  present. 

He  is  come  to  Aiath,  he  is  passed  through  Migron ;  at  Michmash 
he  layeth  up  his  baggage :  they  are  gone  over  the  pass ;  "  Geba  is 
our  lodging,"  they  cry;  Ramah  trembleth;  Gibeah  of  Saul  is  fled. 
Cry  aloud  with  thy  voice,  O  daughter  of  Gallim !  hearken,  O  Laishah ! 
O  thou  poor  Anathoth !  Madmenah  is  a  fugitive;  the  inhabitants 
of  Gebim  gather  themselves  to  flee.  This  very  day  shall  he  halt  at 
Nob;  he  shaketh  his  hand  at  the  mount  of  the  daughter  of  Zion, 
the  hill  of  Jerusalem. 

Behold  the  Lord,  the  LORD  of  hosts,  shall  lop  the  boughs  with 
terror :  and  the  high  ones  of  stature  shall  be  hewn  down,  and  the 
lofty  shall  be  brought  low.  And  he  shall  cut  down  the  thickets  of 
the  forest  with  iron,  and  Lebanon  shall  fall  by  a  mighty  one.  And 
there  shall  come  forth  a  shoot  out  of  the  stock  of  Jesse,  and  a  branch 
out  of  his  roots  shall  bear  fruit. 


THE  RHAPSODY  429 

In  the  same  way  most  of  the  Doom  Songs  (except  those  of 
Ezekiel)  are  rhapsodic  :  the  denunciations  and  predictions  alter- 
nate with  various  modes  of  presenting  the  fulfilment  of  the 
same. 

The  Rhapsodic  Discourse,  as  distinguished  from  the  Rhapsody, 
is  illustrated  on  the  largest  scale  in  a  portion  of  Jeremiah  which 
I  would  describe  as  his  Prophetic  Manifesto.     It  is  Rhapsody  from 
a  long  composition  of  five  chapters,  following  the  Jeremiah's  Mani- 
account  of  the  prophetic  call,  and  embodying  the  festo  (ll"vl) 
general  spirit  of  Jeremiah's  ministry.     Large  part  of  it   is   dis- 
course, marked  by  the  mingling  of  imagery  and  pathetic  appeal 
which  distinguishes  this  prophet;  I  illustrate  some  of  the  rhap- 
sodic passages.1 

A  CRY  TO  JUDAH  AND  JERUSALEM 

A  hot  wind  from  the  bare  heights  in  the  wilderness  toward  the 
daughter  of  my  people,  not  to  fan,  nor  to  cleanse. 

THE  LORD 

A  full  wind  from  these  shall  come  for  me :  now  will  I  also  utter 
judgements  against  them.  Behold,  he  shall  come  up  as  clouds,  and 
his  chariots  shall  be  as  the  whirlwind :  his  horses  are  swifter  than 
eagles. 

THE  PEOPLE 

Woe  unto  us !  for  we  are  spoiled. 

THE  PROPHET 

O  Jerusalem,  wash  thine  heart  from  wickedness,  that  thou  mayest 
be  saved.  How  long  shall  thine  evil  thoughts  lodge  within  thee  ? 

A  VOICE  from  DAN  and  the  HILLS  OF  EPHRAIM 

Make  ye  mention  to  the  nations;  behold,  publish  against  Jerusa- 
lem, that  watchers  come  from  a  far  country,  and  give  out  their  voice 
against  the  cities  of  Judah. 

1  For  the  whole,  see  Jeremiah  volume  of  Modern  Reader's  Bible,  pages  9,  219. 


430  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

THE  LORD 

As  keepers  of  a  field  are  they  against  her  round  about ;  because 
she  hath  been  rebellious  against  me,  saith  the  LORD.  Thy  way  and 
thy  doings  have  procured  these  things  unto  thee ;  this  is  thy  wicked- 
ness ;  for  it  is  bitter,  for  it  reacheth  unto  thine  heart. 

THE  PEOPLE 

My  bowels,  my  bowels !  I  am  pained  at  my  very  heart ;  my  heart 
is  disquieted  in  me;  I  cannot  hold  my  peace;  because  thou  hast 
heard,  O  my  soul,  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  the  alarm  of  war.  De- 
struction upon  destruction  is  cried ;  for  the  whole  land  is  spoiled : 
suddenly  are  my  tents  spoiled,  and  my  curtains  in  a  moment.  How 
long  shall  I  see  the  standard,  and  hear  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  ? 

THE  LORD 

For  my  people  is  foolish,  they  know  me  not ;  they  are  sottish  chil- 
dren, and  they  have  none  understanding :  they  are  wise  to  do  evil, 
but  to  do  good  they  have  no  knowledge. 

VISION 

I  beheld  the  earth,  and,  lo,  it  was  waste  and  void;  and  the 
heavens,  and  they  had  no  light.  I  beheld  the  mountains,  and,  lo, 
they  trembled,  and  all  the  hills  moved  to  and  fro.  I  beheld,  and, 
lo,  there  was  no  man,  and  all  the  birds  of  the  heavens  were  fled.  I 
beheld,  and,  lo,  the  fruitful  field  was  a  wilderness,  and  all  the  cities 
thereof  were  broken  down  at  the  presence  of  the  LORD,  and  before 
his  fierce  anger. 

THE  LORD 

The  whole  land  shall  be  a  desolation ;  yet  will  I  not  make  a  full 
end.  For  this  shall  the  earth  mourn,  and  the  heavens  above  be 
black :  because  I  have  spoken  it,  I  have  purposed  it,  and  I  have  not 
repented,  neither  will  I  turn  back  from  it. 

VISION  continued 

The  whole  city  fleeth  for  the  noise  of  the  horsemen  and  bowmen; 
they  go  into  the  thickets,  and  climb  up  upon  the  rocks :  every  city 
is  forsaken,  and  not  a  man  dwelleth  therein. 


THE  RHAPSODY  431 

THE  LORD 

And  thou,  when  thou  art  spoiled,  what  wilt  thou  do  ?  Though  thou 
clothest  thyself  with  scarlet,  though  thou  deckest  thee  with  orna- 
ments of  gold,  though  thou  enlarges!  thine  eyes  with  paint,  in  vain 
dost  thou  make  thyself  fair;  thy  lovers  despise  thee,  they  seek  thy  life. 

VISION  continued 

For  I  have  heard  a  voice  as  of  a  woman  in  travail,  the  anguish  as 
of  her  that  bringeth  forth  her  first  child,  the  voice  of  the  daughter  of 
Zion,  that  gaspeth  for  breath,  that  spreadeth  her  hands,  saying,  Woe 
is  me  now !  for  my  soul  fainteth  before  the  murderers. 


A  CRY  OUT  OF  THE  NORTH 

Flee  for  safety,  ye  children  of  Benjamin,  out  of  the  midst  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  blow  the  trumpet  in  Tekoa,  and  raise  up  a  signal  on 
Beth-haccherem :  for  evil  looketh  forth  from  the  north,  and  a  great 
destruction. 

THE  LORD 

The  comely  and  delicate  one,  the  daughter  of  Zion,  will  I  cut  off. 
Shepherds  with  their  flocks  shall  come  unto  her;  they  shall  pitch 
their  tents  against  her  round  about;  they  shall  feed  every  one  in  his 
place. 

THE  ENEMY 
Prepare  ye  war  against  her;  arise,  and  let  us  go  up  at  noon. 


THE  PEOPLE 

Woe  unto  us !  for  the  day  declineth,  for  the  shadows  of  the  even- 
ing are  stretched  out. 

THE  ENEMY 

Arise,  and  let  us  go  up  by  night,  and  let  us  destroy  her  palaces. 
For  thus  hath  the  LORD  of  hosts  said,  Hew  ye  down  trees,  and  cast 
up  a  mount  against  Jerusalem :  this  is  the  city  to  be  visited.  She  is 
wholly  oppression  in  the  midst  of  her. 


432  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

THE  LORD 

As  a  well  casteth  forth  her  waters,  so  she  casteth  forth  her  wicked* 
ness:  violence  and  spoil  is  heard  in  her;  before  me  continually  \\ 
sickness  and  wounds. 

In  the  rhapsodies  so  far  reviewed  we  have  seen  the  movement 
that  consists  in  a  continuous  advance,  and   the   movement  that 
advances  only  by  alternations.    There  is  a  third 
visions"1*  ^        ^P6  °*  movement  m  which  the  distinctness  of  the 
parts  is  more  prominent  than  the  progress  from 
one  part  to  another.     Such  divisions  in  the  movement  of  a  literary 
composition  are  felt  to  correspond  to  the  '  Acts '  of  a  drama,  but, 
differing  from  these  Acts  by  the  absence  of  continuous  succession, 
they  should  be  indicated  by  some  different  name,  such  as  '  Vis- 
ions.' 1     A  prophecy  of  Amos  is  an  illustration,  his 
Amos' s  Rhap- 
sody of  the  Rhapsody  of  the  Judgment  to  come.   The  first  of  the 

judgment  to  three  divisions  or  'Visions'  into  which  it  falls 
brings  out  Israel's  part  in  a  general  judgment,  and 
it  is  a  piece  of  Lyric  Prophecy.  The  second  section  is  a  series  of 
appeals  to  Israel,  and  is  in  the  form  of  Discourse.  The  third 
presents  the  coming  of  the  judgment  in  the  form  of  Dramatic 
Vision. 

The  portion  constituting  the  first  Vision  has  been  cited  at  length 
in  a  previous  chapter.2     It  is  a  chain  of  lyric  woes  denounced 

against  various  peoples  :  free  recitative  of  prose  detailing 
Vision  I  Speciai  features  of  each,  while  rhythmic  refrains  speak 

the  common  doom.  It  is  clear  that  the  various  denun- 
ciations are  so  arranged  as  to  lead  up  to  that  on  Israel  as  a 
climax.  A  note  of  this  prophet's  treatment  is  his  power  of  em- 
phasising by  holding  back.  What  the  judgment  on  Israel  is  to 
be  is  kept  a  mystery ;  the  formula  used  for  the  other  nations  — 
devouring  fire  —  does  not  appear  in  the  last  case,  but  the  judg- 
ment is  described  only  by  its  effects,  —  flight  perishing  from  the 
swift,  and  the  mighty  unable  to  deliver  himself. 

1  Compare  the  use  of  this  word  in  the  title  page  of  Isaiah. 

2  Above,  page  115. 


THE  RHAPSODY  433 

The  second  Vision  is  a  series  of  appeals  increasing  in  intensity. 
First,  we  have  four  general  appeals,  each  ushered  in  by  the  cry, 
"  Hear  ye,"  or  "  Publish  ye."  The  effect  is  to  picture 
Corruption  ripe  for  Judgment.  Then  follows  a  pleading 
;n  which  discourse  becomes  lyrical.  The  successive  warn- 
i.igs  sent  by  God  are  enumerated  —  cleanness  of  teeth,  the  guilty 
city  isolated  by  drought  with  abundance  all  around,  blasting  and 
mildew,  pestilence  after  the  manner  of  Egypt,  and  burning  like 
that  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  —  and  after  each  conies  the  refrain, 
"Yet  have  ye  not  returned  to  me,  saith  the  LORD."  The  pleading 
turns  to  a  threat : 

Therefore  THUS  will  I  do  unto  thee,  O  Israel :  and  because  I  will  do 
THIS  unto  thee,  prepare  to  meet  thy  God,  O  Israel. 

The  coming  judgment  still  remains  veiled  under  the  mysterious 
thus.  Then  follows  a  Wail  ;  a  fourth  and  fifth  appeal  are  denun- 
ciations of  '  Woe.' 1  The  limit  of  appeal  seems  now  to  be 

v-vi  7 

reached  :   God  swears  by  Himself  that  Jacob  and  his  sins 

have  become  a  thing  of  abhorrence.     Only  at  the  very  end  does 

the  mystic  judgment  begin  to  take  substance,  as  we  hear 

of  captivity  in  the  east  and  the  nation  that  is  to  afflict  the 

whole  land. 

With  the  third  part  of  the  rhapsody  the  judgment  appears  sen- 
sibly to  advance,  as  the  series  of  visions  pass  before  us.     A  vision- 
ary appearance  of  locusts  at  their  work  of  destruction  is 
seen :  but  when  the  destruction  has  proceeded  a  certain  ^f^  6 
way  the  prophet  interposes  his  intercession,  and  the  Lord 
repents  and  says  it  shall  not  be.     Another  vision,  and  fire  is  seen 
devouring   the    great    deep;   but  when  it  reaches  the  land   the 
prophet  again   makes  intercession,  and  the  judgment   is  stayed. 
The  next  vision  displays  a  plumbline :  the  exact  limit  has  been 
reached,  beyond  which  there  can  be  no  passing  by  of  the  iniqui- 

1  Throughout  these  and  other  parts  of  Amos  we  find  parenthetic  interruptions, 
in  which  the  prophet  makes  appeal  to  the  opponents  of  all  prophecy.  See  Minor 
Prophets  volume  of  Modern  Reader's  Bible,  page  251. 


434  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

ties  of  Israel.     The  emphasis  of  this  as  a  turning-point  is  further 
seen  by  the  way  in  which  the  prophet  introduces  here  one  of  his 
characteristic  digressions,  describing  the  efforts  of  those 
in  authority  to  restrain  him  from  prophesying  evil  to  Is- 
rael.    We  are  thus  prepared  for  the  next  vision  of  summer  fruit : 
Israel  is   ripe  for  her  fall.     With  the  final  vision  the  judgment 
has  begun.     The   Lord,  standing  on   the   altar  of  his 
house,  bids  smite  the  chapiters,  that  the  thresholds  may 
shake,  and  the  universal  destruction  of  house  and  people  may 
follow. 

Though  they  dig  into  hell,  thence  shall  mine  hand  take  them;  and 
though  they  climb  up  to  heaven,  thence  will  I  bring  them  down. 
And  though  they  hide  themselves  in  the  top  of  Carmel,  I  will  search 
and  take  them  out  thence;  and  though  they  be  hid  from  my  sight 
in  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  thence  will  I  command  the  serpent,  and  he 
shall  bite  them. 

The  next  section,  if  not  a  vision,  may  almost  be  regarded  as  em- 
blem prophecy :  the  Ethiopians  are  used  as  an  image,  to  suggest 
how  Israel  is  now  regarded  as  on  a  par  with  the  most 
remote  heathen.     But  just  before  its  close,  the  prophecy 
takes  a  turn  in  its  movement :  "  I  will  not  utterly  destroy."    Thus 
the  last  strain  of  this,  as  of  other  rhapsodies,  can  be  the  song  of 
a  golden  age,  when  "the  plowman  shall  overtake  the 
reaper,  and  the  treader  of  grapes  him  that  soweth  seed  "  ; 
and  the  people  shall  be  planted  upon  their  land,  to  be  plucked  up 
no  more. 

I  have  felt  it  less  necessary  to  dwell  in  detail  upon  this  beauti- 
ful prophecy  of  Amos,  because  this  movement  in  which  logical 
takes  the  place  of  temporal  succession,  will  be  found  again  in  an- 
other composition,  a  colossal  and  wonderful  example  of  the  rhap- 
sodic form,  which  needs  a  separate  chapter  for  its  consideration. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

THE    RHAPSODY    OF    '  ZION    REDEEMED  '    \Isaidh   XL-LXVl] 

THE  last  twenty-seven  chapters  of  our  Book  of  Isaiah  form  a 
single  composition :  no  less  stupendous  as  a  literary  monument 
than  supreme  in  importance  as  inspiration  of 

Hebrew  and  Christian   religion.     To   expound   it  Isaiah's  Rhap- 

°  .      sody  of  '  Zion 

would  require  a  volume  ;  all  that  I  can  attempt  is   Redeemed ' 

to  elucidate  its  outer  literary  form,  well  assured 
that  here,  as  always,  this  must  be  an  important  factor  in  the  inter- 
pretation. 

Every  reader  feels  a  difficulty  in  catching  the  unity  of  the 
whole,  however  strongly  he  may  feel  the  attraction  of  the  parts. 
No  narrative  is  carried  on  from  beginning  to  end,  though  there  is 
much  to  suggest  progress  of  story;  though  reasoning  abounds, 
there  is  no  sign  of  a  logical  plan ;  if  the  reader  seeks  to  take 
refuge  in  supposing  a  collection  of  many  compositions,  he  is  con- 
tinually confronted  with  evidences  of  unity.  The  full  force  of 
this  part  of  the  Bible  is  brought  out  by  considering  it  a  Rhapsody, 
—  the  prophetic  form  made  by  the  fusion  of  all  literary  forms  in 
one ;  which  can  thus  give  the  realistic  emphasis  of  dramatic 
presentation  to  its  ideas,  while  free  at  any  point  to  abandon 
drama  for  discourse  or  lyric  meditation.  This  Rhapsody  of  Zion 
Redeemed  has  a  movement  which,  like  that  of 

other  rhapsodies,  is  best  compared  to  the  succes-  Its  general 

-  movement  and 

sion  of  parts  in  an  Oratorio.     On  the  whole,  this  matter 

movement  is  so  far  an   advance  that,  like  many 
other  prophecies,  it  works  forward  from  an  immediate  judgment 

435 


436  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

and  deliverance,  on  to  the  final  judgment  of  the  nations  and  resto- 
ration of  the  remnant  in  a  Messianic  kingdom.  But  the  seven 
divisions  into  which  the  whole  falls  are  not  seven  stages  in  this 
advance,  but  (like  those  in  the  prophecy  of  Amos)  seven  indepen- 
dent '  Visions,'  side  by  side  in  part  and  partly  successive,  each 
complete  in  itself  and  drawing  matter  from  all  parts  of  the  nationa] 
history,  and  all  necessary  to  be  exhibited  before  the  action  is  con- 
summated. The  seven  Visions  may  be  described  as  follows  :  — 

i 
The  Servant  of  Jehovah  delivered  from  Bondage 

2 

The  Servant  of  Jehovah  Awakened 

3 

Zion  Awakened 


5 

Zion  Exalted 

6 

Redemption  at  work  in  Zion 

7 

The  Day  of  Judgment 

The  mere  reading  of  these  titles  suggests  advance  in  the  move- 
ment as  a  whole.  Yet  it  is  impossible  to  say  that  (for  example) 
the  sixth  section  either  follows  or  precedes  those  standing  before 
it :  it  embraces  the  whole  action  looked  at  from  a  particular  point 


THE  RHAPSOD  Y  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED '  437 

of  view,  and  is  placed  where  it  is  because  of  the  relation  of  that 
point  of  view  to  the  whole.  Further,  as  the  rhapsodic  form  can 
mingle  dramatic  realisation  with  the  most  spiritual  meditation  or 
imaginative  idealising,  so  the  matter  of  the  whole  prophecy  ex- 
tends from  an  immediate  deliverance  of  Babylonian  Captives,  by 
the  instrumentality  of  Cyrus,  to  a  spiritual  redemption  of  Zion, 
and  final  judgment  of  the  nations  by  Jehovah.  And  similarly  the 
'  Servant  of  Jehovah '  appears  at  some  points  as  Israel  the  nation, 
charged  with  a  mission  to  itself  and  to  the  Gentiles;  in  other 
places  it  seems  to  individualise  into  a  humanity  that  can  suffer 
martyrdom,  and,  in  the  memorable  central  act  of  the  rhapsody, 
has  become  a  mystic  personality,  whose  sufferings  are  at  last 
recognised  by  the  nations  as  vicarious. 

PRELUDE 

The  Prelude  embodies  the  spirit  of  the  whole  rhapsody  in  brief 
lyric  and  dramatic  form.     The  Voice  of  God  is  heard  command- 
ing to  speak  comfort  to  Jerusalem,  and  cry  to  her  that 
her  warfare  is  accomplished,  and  her  iniquity  pardoned. 
At  once  voices  appear  to  take  up  the  message  and  cairy  it  on  to 
its  destination.     A  Voice  cries  to  prepare  in  the  wilderness  a  high- 
way for  God ;  every  valley  is  to  be  exalted  and  every  mountain 
and  hill  made  low,  the  crooked  is  to  be  made  straight  and  the 
rough  places  plain :    the  glory  of  the  Lord  is  about  to  be  re- 
vealed, and   all  flesh   shall  see   it   together.      Another 
Voice  in  succession  passes  on  the  word ;  but  here  the 
Voice  of  the  Tidings  is  checked  by  the  Voice  of  Despondency.  - 

What  shall  I  cry? 
All  flesh  is  grass, 
And  all  the  goodliness  thereof  is  as  the  flower  of  the  field : 

The  grass  withereth, 

The  flower  fadeth ; 

Because  the  breath  of  the  LORD  bloweth  upon  it : 
Surely  the  people  is  grass. 


438  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

But  the  Voice  of  the  Tidings  makes  reply : 

The  grass  withereth, 
The  flower  fadeth : 
But  the  word  of  our  God  shall  stand  for  ever. 

Another  Voice  seems  to  sound  from  far  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem: 
bidding  to  get  up  into  the  high  mountain  to  tell  the  good 
tidings  to  Zion,  to  lift  up  the  voice  with  strength,  to  say 

to  the  cities  of  Judah,  Behold  your  God  ! 

VISION  I 

The  first  Vision  elaborately  presents  the  deliverance  of  Jehovah's 
Servant  from  bondage  in  Babylon.  An  Introduction  celebrates,  in 
the  form  of  meditation,  the  supremacy  of  Jehovah  :  who 
measureth  the  waters  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  and 
meteth  out  heaven  with  a  span,  weighing  the  mountains  in  scales 
and  the  hills  in  a  balance  ;  before  whom  the  nations  are  as  a  drop 
in  a  bucket;  he  taketh  up  the  isles  as  a  very  little  thing.  To 
what,  then,  shall  this  God  be  likened?  to  a  graven  image,  gilded 
by  a  goldsmith,  with  silver  chains  cast  for  it  lest  the  god  fall  down  ? 
or  wrought  for  the  impoverished  worshipper  by  a  cunning  work- 
man out  of  a  tree,  chosen  carefully  lest  the  god  might  rot  ?  Mean- 
while He  sitteth  above  the  circle  of  the  earth,  and  all  the  inhabitants 
thereof  are  but  as  grasshoppers ;  He  calleth  all  the  host  of  heaven 
by  number  and  by  name,  and  for  that  He  is  strong  not  one  of 
them  is  lacking.  Appeal  is  then  made  to  the  desponding  of  Israel, 
who  cry  that  their  way  is  hid  from  God,  and  their  judgment  a 
thing  passed  away  for  ever.  Have  they  not  heard  and  known 
that  the  Creator  of  the  ends  of  the  earth  fainteth  not,  neither  is 
weary,  but  giveth  power  to  the  faint  ?  Even  the  youths  shall  be 
weary  and  fail;  but  they  that  wait  upon  the  LORD  shall  renew 
their  strength ;  they  shall  mount  up  with  wings  as  eagles ;  they 
shall  run,  and  not  be  weary ;  they  shall  walk,  and  not  faint. 


THE  RHAPSODY  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED1  439 

At  this  point  the  rhapsody  becomes  dramatic  :  a  single  scenic 
action  is  sustained  for  eight  chapters,  broken  only  by  occasional 
outbursts  of  lyric  song.  The  Nations  are  summoned  to 
the  bar  of  God  to  hear  his  will  concerning  the  deliverance 
of  his  people  ;  and  the  idea  of  the  assembled  Nations,  once  raised, 
is  by  little  touches  of  allusion  kept  before  us  to  the  end.1  There 
is  no  speaker  in  this  scene  except  Jehovah  :  yet,  by  the  pendulum- 
like  alternation  so  common  in  prophecy,2  and  here  seven  times  re- 
peated, God  is  presented  as  addressing  alternately  the  Nations  and 
Israel,  each  in  the  presence  of  the  other,  pronouncing  his  fore- 
ordained counsel  to  the  one,  and  proclaiming  redemption  to  the 
other.  Thus  the  assumed  presence  of  the  Nations  on  the  one  side 
and  Israel  on  the  other  completes  the  dramatic  reality  of  the  scene. 

i.   The  Nations,  away  to  the  furthest  islands  of  the  west,  are 
summoned  to  judgment :  to  hear  of  '  one  from  the  east '  raised  up 
as  an  instrument  of  righteousness,3  crushing  the  peoples 
in  his  path ;   and  none  but  Jehovah  hath  wrought  this 
from  the  beginning. — A  few  verses  present  the  panic  of  the  assem- 
bling Nations :  how  the  idolaters  encourage  one  another  : 
the  carpenter  cheering  the  goldsmith,  and  he  that  smooth- 
eth  with  the  hammer  him  that  smiteth  the  anvil ;  they  look  to  the 
soldering  of  the  idols,  and  strengthen  them  with  chains  for  the 
coming  shock, 

As  if  in  contrast  with  such  panic,  Israel  is  summoned  with  words 
of  comfort.     He  is  the  chosen  Servant  of  Jehovah,  who  will  be 
his   Redeemer :    causing  mountains  to  be  threshed  and 
scattered  out  of  his  path,  opening  for  him  rivers  on  bare 
heights  and  fountains  in  the  midst  of  valleys,  while  the  wilderness 

1  Such  allusions  are  xli.  i,  21,  28-9;  xliii.  9-10;  xliv.  8-9;  xlv.  20;  xlviii.  6,  14. 
The  fact  that  occasionally  (xliii.  12 ;  xliv.  8 ;  xlv.  17)  in  addresses  to  the  Nations 
the  pronoun  You  or  Your  is  casually  used  in  reference  to  Israel  adds  to  the  general 
effect  of  the  scene :  each  party  is  addressed  in  the  presence  of  the  other. 

2  Compare  above,  pages  112,  113  (note). 

*  It  is  specially  important  in  this  prophecy  to  remember  the  twofold  meaning  in 
the  Old  Testament  of  the  word  '  righteousness ' :  not  only  right  doing,  but  also 
setting  right,  vindication,  almost  the  equivalent  of  salvation.  Compare  xli.  a ;  xlii. 
6 ;  xlv.  8,  13 ;  especially  li.  5 ;  and  Ivi.  i. 


440  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

blooming  with  myrtle  and  acacia  shall  signify  what  the  Holy  One 
of  Israel  hath  done  for  his  people. 

2.   The  idolatrous  Nations  are  challenged  to  dispute,  to  pro- 
duce their  cause  and  their  strong  reasons ;  let  their  idols  declare 
things  to  come  that  their  godhead  may  be  known  ; 

zli.  ax-xliii.  8 

let  them  do  good  or  do  evil  that  the  two  parties 

may  look  one  upon  the  other.  —  A  single  verse  conveys  the  silence 

of  the  Nations :  the  gods  of  their  workmanship  are  things 

of  nought.  —  Then  Jehovah  produces  his  case:    he   has 

raised  up  '  one  from  the  north,'  '  from  the  rising  of  the  sun,'  to 

tread  the  Nations  like  clay,  and  make  glad  tidings  for  Zion.     Who 

but  Jehovah  hath  declared  such  counsel  from  the  beginning?  — 

Again  the  verses  present  God  as  looking  for  an  answer 

xli .  28  9 

from  the  Nations  and  meeting  only  silence :  he  pronounces 

the  molten  images  vanity  and  confusion. 

The  Divine  Speaker  now  turns  to  Israel,  and  proclaims  him  to 

the  Nations  as  his  Servant : *  and  the  service  is  to  bring  forth  judg- 
ment to  the  Gentiles.     Not  by  force,  but  by  gentleness  : 

xlii 

he  shall  not  cry  nor  shout ;  the  bruised  reed  he  shall  not 

break,  nor  quench  smoking  flax ;  but  he  shall  be  sustained  until 
he  has  become  light  and  help  to  the  peoples  of  the  earth.  —  A 
Lyric    Outburst  of  Praise   to  Jehovah  from   the  whole 
earth :  let  them  that  go  down  to  the  sea  sing,  let  Sela 
and  the  villages  of  Kedar  lift  up  the  voice,  let  them  shout  from 
the  top  of  the  mountains.     Jehovah  hath  long  kept  silence,  but 
now  will  he  cry  like  a  travailing  woman ;   he  will  waste  moun- 
tains and  make  rivers  islands,  he  will  make  darkness  light  and 
the   crooked   straight :    and   Israel   shall   never   be   forsaken.  — 
The   proclamation   goes    on    to    describe   this   Servant 
of  Jehovah  as  blind,  as  deaf,  as  hid  in  prison  houses, 
and    only   now    perceiving    that    it    is   He   against    whom    the 

1  It  seems  to  me  impossible  to  understand  the  '  Servant '  of  these  verses  (xlii. 
1-9)  otherwise  than  as  the  nation  of  Israel.  No  one  doubts  that  the  '  Servant '  of 
verses  18-25  's  Israel :  but  these  verses  are  a  continuation  of  the  beginning  of  the 
chapter,  verses  10-13  being  one  of  the  lyric  interruptions  that  occur  at  intervals 
and  are  outside  the  argument. 


THE  RHAPSODY  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED'  441 

people  has  sinned  that  has  given  Israel  for  a  spoil.  Yet  now  his 
Maker  has  become  his  Redeemer.  "  When  thou  passest  through 
the  waters  I  will  be  with  thee ;  and  through  the  rivers,  they  shall 
not  overflow  thee."  The  Holy  One  of  Israel  is  his  saviour :  he 
has  given  Egypt  for  ransom,  and  Ethiopia  and  Seba ;  he  will  say 
to  the  north,  Give  up,  and  to  the  south,  Keep  not  back ;  and  the 
imprisoning  nations  shall  bring  them  forth,  a  blind  people  that 
hath  eyes,  a  deaf  people  that  hath  ears. 

3.  The   alternation    of  pleading    continues.      The   assembled 
Nations  are  again  challenged  to  bring  witnesses,  to  show  the  fore- 
seeing of  counsel  from  of  old.     Their  silence  makes 

T   ,  .        .        xli 

them  witnesses  for  Jehovah,  and  Israel  too  is  wit- 
ness.    There  is  no  god  but  Jehovah,  and  he  is  the  only  saviour. 

Then  to  Israel  their  Creator  and  King  tells  how  for  their  sake 
Babylon  has  been  visited.  The  former  deliverance  from  Egypt 
shall  no  more  be  remembered  :  a  new  thing  shall  be 

xliii.  14 

done,  a  way  opened  in  the  wilderness,  and  rivers  in  the 
desert.  Yet  Israel  hath  not  called  upon  the  Lord  ;  hath  wearied 
him  with  sins  and  not  with  sacrifices.  Jehovah  will  blot  out  his 
transgressions  for  his  own  sake.  Water  shall  be  poured  upon  the 
thirsty,  and  streams  upon  the  dry  ground  ;  the  seed  of  Jacob  shall 
spring  up  among  the  grass,  as  willows  by  the  watercourses.  "  One 
shall  say,  I  am  the  LORD'S  ;  and  another  shall  call  himself  by  the 
name  of  Jacob ;  and  another  shall  subscribe  with  his  hand  unto 
the  LORD,  and  surname  himself  by  the  name  of  Israel." 

4.  Again  Jehovah  asserts  his  godhead,  and  pours  scorn  on  the 
gods  of  the  Nations.     He  is  the  first,  and  he  is  the  last,  and 
beside   him    there  is  no  God,  there  is  no  Rock. 

The  fashioners  of  graven  images  are  plunged  in 

confusion  :  the  delectable  things  their  work  has  created  cannot 

witness  for  them  to  save  them  from  shame. 

The  smith  maketh  an  axe,  and  worketh  in  the  coals,  and  fashioneth 
it  with  hammers,  and  worketh  it  with  his  strong  arm :  yea,  he  is 
hungry,  and  his  strength  faileth;  he  drinketh  no  water,  and  is  faint. 
The  carpenter  stretcheth  out  a  line;  he  marketh  it  out  with  a  pencik; 


442 


BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 


he  shapeth  it  with  planes,  and  he  marketh  it  out  with  the  compasses, 
and  shapeth  it  after  the  figure  of  a  man,  according  to  the  beauty  of 
a  man,  to  dwell  in  the  house.  He  heweth  him  down  cedars,  and 
taketh  the  holm  tree  and  the  oak,  and  strengthened  for  himself  one 
among  the  trees  of  the  forest  :  he  planteth  a  fir  tree,  and  the  rain 
doth  nourish  it.  Then  shall  it  be  for  a  man  to  burn;  and  he  taketh 
thereof,  and  warmeth  himself;  yea,  he  kindleth  it,  and  baketh  bread  : 
yea,  he  maketh  a  god,  and  worshippeth  it  :  he  maketh  it  a  graven 
image,  and  falleth  down  thereto.  He  burneth  part  thereof  in  the 
fire  ;  with  part  thereof  he  eateth  flesh  ;  he  roasteth  roast,  and  is  sat- 
isfied :  yea,  he  warmeth  himself,  and  saith,  Aha,  I  am  warm,  I  have 
seen  the  fire  :  and  the  residue  thereof  he  maketh  a  god,  even  his 
graven  image  :  he  falleth  down  unto  it  and  worshippeth,  and  prayeth 
unto  it,  and  saith,  Deliver  me;  for  thou  art  my  god. 

So  the  worshipper  of  idols  feeds  upon  ashes,  with  none  to  show 

him  how  his  deceived  heart  has  led  him  astray,  till  he  cannot  see 

the  lie  in  his  right  hand. 

But  not  so  with  Israel  :  theirs  is  not  a  made  God,  but  the 
Maker  of  his  people.  And  he  has  now  redeemed  them, 
blotting  out  as  a  thick  cloud  their  transgressions,  and 

as  a  cloud  their  sins. 


Sing,  O  ye  heavens, 

For  the  LORD  hath  done  it; 

Shout,  ye  lower  parts  of  the  earth; 

Break  forth  into  singing,  ye  mountains, 

O  forest,  and  every  tree  therein: 

For  the  Lord  hath  redeemed  "Jacob, 
And  wilt  glorify  himself  in  Israel. 


Then  thus  saith  to  Israel  his  Redeemer,  he  who  stretcheth  out 

the  heavens,  he  who  frustrateth  the  tokens  of  liars,  and  maketh 

diviners  mad  :   Cyrus  is  his  Shepherd,  and  shall  perform  all  his 

pleasure,  even  saying  of  Jerusalem,  She  shall  be  built.     -3  ~~  '  %• 

5.  To  the  Nations  Jehovah  proclaims  Cyrus  as  his  anointed, 

commissioned  to  do  his  work,  for  which  the  way 

shall  be  smoothed  before  him.     Jehovah  hath  sur- 

named  Cyrus,  though  Cyrus  hath  not  known  him.     The  authority 


xliv.  ai 


THE  RHAPSODY  OF  •  ZION  REDEEMED'  443 

of  the  proclamation  is  maintained  :  Jehovah  is  he  who  is  the 
creator  of  light  and  of  darkness,  peace  and  evil  are  alike  his 
instruments. 

Drop  down,  ye  heavens,  from  above, 

And  let  the  skies  pour  down  righteousness  : 
Let  the  earth  open,  that  they  may  be  fruitful  in  salvation, 

And  let  her  cause  righteousness  to  spring  up  together. 

Shall  not  the  work  of  the  hands  be  used  by  him  that  has  wrought 
it?  Therefore  the  Creator  of  man  has  raised  up  Cyrus  as  an 
instrument  of  righteousness.  For  this  shall  the  labour  of  Egypt, 
and  the  merchandise  of  Ethiopia,  and  the  Sabeans,  men  of  stature, 
come  over  unto  him,  accepting  his  bonds  because  of  the  God  that 
is  hidden  in  him  :  "  Verily  thou  art  a  God  that  hidest  thyself,  O 
God  of  Israel,  the  Saviour."  And  let  the  assembled  Nations  know 
that  there  is  no  saviour  but  Jehovah  :  to  Him  must  the  ends  of  the 
earth  look,  and  to  Him  every  knee  bow.  His  enemies  shall  be 
covered  with  confusion :  and  a  few  words  of  the  Divine  Speaker 
call  up  a  picture  of  the  idols  of  Babylon  borne  away  into  captivity, 
Bel  bowing  down  over  one  beast,  and  another  beast  groaning  under 
the  weight  of  Nebo  laid  flat  across  him. 

Then,  with  a  sudden  turn,  the  Speaker  addresses  Israel :  their 
God  is  not  a  god  to  be  borne  in  his  people's  arms,  but  in  his 
arms  has  their  God  carried  his  people,  from  the  womb  he  has 
borne  them,  and  even  to  hoar  hairs  shall  they  be  carried.  The 
one  God,  whom  no  helpless  idols  can  equal,  whose  is  the  counsel 
that  is  seen  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  will  do  his  pleasure  : 
he  calls  a  ravenous  bird  from  the  east  to  execute  his  counsel,  and 
his  salvation  shall  no  longer  tarry. 

6.  The  sixth  section  opens  with  Israel's  triumph  over  fallen 
Babylon.  — A  lyric  outburst  calls  tauntingly  to  the  virgin  daughter 
of  Babylon  to  come  down  and  sit  in  the  dust,  to  sit  on  the 

xlvii.  1-5 
ground  without  a  throne ;  to  cover  herself  with  shame ; 

to  sit  silent,  to  get  her  into  darkness,  for  she  shall  no  more  be 
called  the  lady  of  kingdoms.  —  The  Divine  Speaker  reminds 


444  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

Babylon  of  her  cruelty  to   the   captives  of  the  Lord,  and  her 

careless  confidence.     Now  all  her  losses  shall  come  upon 

her  at  once,  the  day  of  evil  breaking  without  any  dawn  to 

go  before  it ;  and  all  her  astrologers,  and  star-gazers,  and  monthly 

prognosticators  shall  be  as  stubble ;  there  shall  be  none  to  save. 

Upon  Israel  too  the  Divine  rebuke  falls  :  upon  those  who  swear 
by  the  name  of  Jehovah,  and  make  mention  of  the  God  of  Israel, 

but  not  in  truth  nor  in  righteousness.     Because  of  the 
zlviii.  x  ...  it.i 

iron  smew  in  their  neck,  and  their  brow  of  brass,  has 

Jehovah  told  them  the  thing  before  it  come  to  pass,  lest  they 
should  say  their  idol  had  done  it.  From  the  womb  they  have 
been  a  transgressor,  but  for  his  name's  sake  God  will  defer  his 
anger.  He  has  refined  Israel,  but  not  as  silver ;  He  has  tried  him 
in  the  furnace  of  affliction,  —  He,  the  first  and  last,  whose  glory 
shall  not  be  given  to  another. 

7.   For  the  seventh  and  last  time  in  this  High  Court  of  Heaven 
and   Earth  God   turns   to  the  assembled   Nations.1     He  whom 
Jehovah  loveth  shall  perform  his  pleasure  on  Baby- 
lon, and  his  way  shall  be  made  prosperous.     The 
Nations  are  bidden  to  listen,  and  already  the  voice  of  Jehovah's 
agent  is  heard  :  "  From  the  time  that  it  was,  there  am  I :  and  now 
the  Lord  GOD  hath  sent  me,  and  his  spirit." 

It  remains  to  turn  for  the  last  time  to  Israel,  that  they  may 
know  their  redeemer,  who  leads  them  by  the  way  they  should  go. 

"Oh  that'thou  hadst  hearkened  to  my  commandments  ! 
xlviii.  17  .  11-1 

then  had  thy  peace  been  as  a  river,  and  thy  righteousness 

as  the  waves  of  the  sea."  The  scene  of  judgment  ends  with  a  cry 
to  go  forth  out  of  Babylon,  that  the  whole  earth  may  ring  with  a 
cry  of  Jacob,  the  Lord's  Servant,  redeemed,  and  a  second  time 
led  through  the  desert,  while  waters  gush  from  the  rock  to  quench 
bis  thirst.2 

1  For  these  sevenfold  divisions  compare  above,  page  no. 

3  The  concluding  words,  "  There  is  no  peace,  saith  the  Lord,  unto  the  wicked" 
I  understand  as  a  prolonged  Amen,  or  pious  ejaculation  of  a  scribe,  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  section,  without  a  place  in  the  immediate  context.  Compare  the  doxolo- 
gies  ending  the  first  four  books  of  Psalms. 


THE  RHAPSODY   OF  ' ZION  REDEEMED*  445 


VISION  II 

The  second  Vision  presents  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  commencing 
the  ministry  proclaimed  for  him  in  the  previous  scenes. 
This  Servant  is  distinctly  called  the  nation  Israel :  but  it 
is  Israel  reforming  Israel,  a  nation  with  a  mission  to  itself  as  well 
as  to  those  outside. 

Listen,  O  isles,  unto  me;  and  hearken,  ye  peoples,  from  far:  the 
LORD  hath  called  me  from  the  womb;  from  the  bowels  of  my  mother 
hath  he  made  mention  of  my  name :  and  he  hath  made  my  mouth 
like  a  sharp  sword,  in  the  shadow  of  his  hand  hath  he  hid  me;  and 
he  hath  made  me  a  polished  shaft,  in  his  quiver  hath  he  kept  me 
close  :  and  he  said  unto  me,  Thou  art  my  servant;  Israel,  in  whom 
I  will  be  glorified.  But  I  said,  I  have  laboured  in  vain,  I  have  spent 
my  strength  for  nought  and  vanity. 

Then  he  speaks  of  the  new  commission  which  has  roused  him  from 
such  despondency. 

He  saith,  It  is  too  light  a  thing  that  thou  shouldest  be  my  servant  to 
raise  up  the  tribes  of  Jacob,  and  to  restore  the  preserved  of  Israel : 
I  will  also  give  thee  for  a  light  to  the  Gentiles,  that  thou  mayest  be 
my  salvation  unto  the  end  of  the  earth. 

As  an  opening  of  his  commission  he  proclaims  the  salvation  that 
is  to  bring  Israel — the  despised,  the  servant  of  rulers  —  and  make 
him  inherit  desolate  heritages.  The  captives  shall  feed  in  the 
ways,  and  on  all  bare  heights  shall  be  their  pasture ;  they  shall 
not  hunger  nor  thirst,  neither  shall  the  heat  nor  sun  smite  them  : 
for  he  that  hath  mercy  on  them  shall  lead  them,  even  by  the  • 
springs  of  water  shall  he  guide  them. 

Sing,  0  heavens  ; 

And  be  joyful,  O  earth  ; 

And  break  forth  into  singing,  O  mountains: 
For  the  LORD  hath  comforted  his  people, 
And  will  have  compassion  upon  his  afflicted. 


446  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

The  voice  of  Desponding  Zion  is  heard  :  this  with  the  responses 

of  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  makes  a  change  to  dialogue.     She 

cries  that  Jehovah  has  forsaken  her.  —  Can  a  woman 

xlix.  14 

forget  her  sucking  child  ?  Behold,  she  is  graven  on  the 
palms  of  the  Lord's  hands :  her  waste  places  shall  be  built,  and 
the  children  of  her  bereavement  shall  yet  throng  until  the  place  is 
too  strait  for  its  inhabitants.  —  But  how  shall  the  barren  and  the 
exile  bring  forth  new  inhabitants  ?  —  Kings  shall  be  her  nursing- 
fathers,  and  queens  her  nursing-mothers :  they  shall  bring  her 
children  in  their  bosoms.  —  Zion  is  still  incredulous :  shall  the 
prey  be  taken  from  the  mighty?  —  Mighty  is  He  that  contendeth 
for  her :  is  Jehovah's  hand  shortened  ?  have  the  children  of  God 
been  disinherited? 

The  discourse  passes  back  into  a  soliloquy  of  Jehovah's  Servant : 
and  here  the  Servant  appears  to  take  more  individual  form.  The 
Lord  hath  given  him  the  tongue  of  the  taught  that  he 
might  know  how  to  sustain  with  words  him  that  is  weary ; 
morning  by  morning  his  ear  is  wakened  to  the  Divine  word.  And 
he  has  not  been  rebellious ;  he  has  given  his  back  to  the  smiters, 
and  his  cheeks  to  them  that  pulled  off  the  hair;  he  hid  not  his 
face  from  shame  and  spitting :  for  He  that  justifieth  him  is  near. 
And  already  he  is  become  a  judgment  to  those  about  him,  to 
separate  between  those  who  obey  his  voice,  even  though  they  walk 
in  darkness,  and  those  who  kindle  a  fire,  and  gird  themselves 
about  with  firebrands :  these  he  leaves  to  walk  in  the  flame  of 
their  fire,  and  among  the  brands  they  have  kindled ;  this  only 
they  have  from  him,  that  they  shall  lie  down  in  sorrow. 


VISION  III 

The  third  Vision,  in  a  mystical  dramatic  mode  of  realisation  only 
possible  in  so  spiritual  a  literary  form  as  the  rhapsody, 
presents  the  gradual  Awakening  of  Zion  under  reiterated 
calls  from  God  and  the  Celestial  Hosts. 


THE  RHAPSODY  OF  ' ZION  REDEEMED'  447 

Jehovah  crieth  to  his  people  that  seek  him  to  look  to  their 
past  and  take  comfort :  to  look  unto  the  rock  whence  they  were 
hewn,  and  to  the  hole  of  the  pit  whence  they  were  digged.  For 
the  waste  places  of  Zion  shall  again  be  as  Eden  :  joy  and  gladness 
shall  be  found  therein,  thanksgiving,  and  the  voice  of  melody.  — 
No  response. 

Jehovah  crieth  comfort  to  his  people  from  their  glorious 
future  :  his  righteousness  is  near,  his  salvation  is  gone  forth.  The 
heavens  shall  vanish  away  like  smoke,  and  the  earth  wax  old 
like  a  garment,  but  his  salvation  shall  stand  fast  for  ever. — 
No  response. 

Jehovah  comforteth  his  people  against  the  reproach  of  men. 
For  these  the  moth  shall  eat  like  a  garment,  the  worm  shall  eat 
them  like  wool :  but  Jehovah's  righteousness  shall  be  for  ever. 

The  Celestial  Chorus  encourage  Jehovah  :  calling  to  the  Arm 
of  the  Lord  to  awake  as  in  the  days  of  old,  when  Egypt  was  cut 
in  pieces,  and  the  sea  became  a  pathway  for  the  redeemed.  And 
the  ransomed  of  the  Lord  shall  again  come  with  singing  to  Zion, 
everlasting  joy  upon  their  heads. 

Jehovah  yet  again  comforteth  his  people :  will  they  fear  man 
that  shall  die,  and  the  son  of  man  which  shall  be  as  grass,  when 
the  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth  has  said  that  the  captive  exiles 
shall  speedily  be  loosed?  For  it  is  he  who  ruleth  the  sea  that 
hath  put  his  words  in  their  mouth  and  covered  them  with  the 
shadow  of  his  hand.  —  No  response. 

The  Celestial  Chorus  join  in  the  cry  to  Jerusalem  to  awake,  to 
stand  up  :  she  has  drunk  of  the  cup  of  staggering,  and  there  has 
been  none  among  all  her  sons  to  guide  her.  Therefore  has  Jeho- 
vah taken  out  of  her  hand  the  cup  of  staggering,  and  put  it  into 
the  hands  of  them  that  afflict  her.  —  No  response. 

The  Celestial  Chorus  reiterate  the  cry  to  Zion  to  awake,  to  put 
on  her  strength,  to  put  on  her  garments  of  beauty,  shaking  herself 
from  the  dust.  For  Jehovah  hath  said,  she  was  sold  for  nought, 
and  without  money  shall  she  be  redeemed,  and  shall  know  that  it 
is  he,  even  Jehovah,  who  hath  done  it. 


448  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

At  last  the  awakening  of  Zion  seems  to  begin.  Beautiful  upon 
the  distant  mountains  are  seen  the  feet  of  messengers  bringing 
good  tidings  of  good,  publishers  of  salvation.  —  Now  the 
watchmen  of  Zion  have  caught  the  word  :  they  lift  up  the 
voice  :  no  discordant  notes,  they  see  eye  to  eye  how  Jehovah  is 
returning  to  Zion.  —  Now  the  waste  places  of  Jerusalem  break 
forth  into  joy,  they  sing  together  that  the  Lord  hath  redeemed 
Jerusalem.  —  Now  the  Lord's  arm  is  made  bare  that  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth  can  behold  his  salvation  :  and  awakened  Zion  can  see, 
as  if  present,  the  bearers  of  the  sacred  vessels  departing  out  of 
Babylon,  careful  that  no  unclean  thing  mar  their  sacred  office,  and 
passing  on  with  the  God  of  Israel  for  their  rearward. 

VISION  IV 

We  have  reached  the  fourth  and  central  Vision  of  the  Rhap- 
sody :  the  brief  section  which  seems  to  stand  out  from  the  rest 

like  the  keystone  of  an  arch,  and  presents  the  Servant 
lii.  i3-liii 

of  Jehovah  prosperous  and  highly  exalted,  to  the  aston- 
ishment of  the  nations  that  had  despised  his  marred  visage, 
his  form  marred  more  than  the  sons  of  men.  The  Chorus  of 

Nations,  in  a  lyric  song  of  gradually  augmenting  stanzas, 

express  their  astonishment  at  that  which  they  can  hardly 
believe ;  and  bring  out  the  mystery  of  a  personality  whose  suffer- 
ings have  been  a  bearing  of  the  sufferings  of  others.  Which  of  us 
(they  ask)  believed  that  which  we  heard,  or  recognised  the  Lord's 
hand,  when  we  saw  him  grow  up  as  a  root  out  of  a  dry  ground, 
without  form  or  comeliness,  despised  and  rejected  of  men? 
Surely  he  hath  borne  our  griefs,  and  been  wounded  for  our  trans- 
gressions, when  we  esteemed  him  smitten  of  God  and  afflicted ; 
we  were  the  sheep  that  had  gone  astray,  and  the  Lord  laid  on 
him  the  iniquity  of  us  all.  In  oppression  he  humbled  himself; 
led  as  a  lamb  to  slaughter  he  opened  not  his  mouth ;  who  of  his 
generation  considered  that  he  was  cut  off  from  the  land  of  the 
living,  stricken  for  the  people's  transgression?  Yet  it  pleased 


THE  RHAPSODY  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED'  449 

Jehovah  to  put  him  to  grief:  but  he  shall  see  of  the  travail  of  his 
soul  and  be  satisfied,  and  by  knowledge  of  him  shall  the  righteous 
Servant  make  many  righteous. 

VISION  V 

From  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  in  his  glory  we  pass  to  Zion  ex- 
alted.   The  fifth  section  of  the  Rhapsody  is  a  series  of 
Songs  for  Zion  in  her  Exaltation.     The  first  Song  cele- 
brates Zion  as  Jehovah's  Bride  :  "  Thy  maker  is  thine  husband, 
the  Lord  of  hosts  is  his  name." 

For  a  small  moment  have  I  forsaken  thee; 

But  with  great  mercies  will  I  gather  thee. 
In  overflowing  wrath  I  hid  my  face  from  thee  for  a  moment; 

But  with  everlasting  kindness  will  I  have  mercy  upon  thee. 

Like  the  rainbow  pledge  of  old  to  Noah  is  this  new  covenant. 

For  the  mountains  shall  depart, 

And  the  hills  be  removed; 
But  my  kindness  shall  not  depart  from  thee, 

Neither  shall  my  covenant  of  peace  be  removed. 

The  second  Song  depicts  Zion  as  a  City  of  Beauty  and  Peace  : 
her  foundations  of  sapphires  and  pinnacles  of  rubies,  her  gates  of 
carbuncles,  and  all  her  border  of  pleasant  stones.  Zion  is  impreg- 
nable as  she  is  beautiful :  terror  shall  not  come  nigh  her ;  no 
weapon  formed  against  her  shall  prosper. 

The  third  Song,  already  cited1  in  full,  presents  Zion  calling  to 
the  nations  with  offers  of  a  free  covenant.  With  the  usual  pro- 
phetic intermingling  of  recitative  and  rhythmic  verse  the  musical 
invitation  of  Zion  to  the  Nations  is  interrupted  at  intervals  with 
comfortable  words  of  the  Divine  Voice,  reciting  how  Zion  is  ap- 
pointed to  be  a  leader  of  the  peoples,  how  high  are  the  Divine 
thoughts  above  the  human  ambitions  of  Zion.  The  end  is  a 
glorious  climax : 

1  Above,  pages  121-3. 


450  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

Ye  shall  go  out  with  joy, 

And  be  led  forth  with  peace  : 
The  mountains  and  hills  shall  break  forth  before  you  into  singing, 

And  all  the  trees  of  the  field  shall  clap  their  hands. 
Instead  of  the  thorn  shall  come  up  the  fir  tree, 

And  instead  of  the  brier  shall  come  up  the  myrtle  tree : 
And  it  shall  be  to  the  LORD  for  a  name, 

For  an  everlasting  sign  that  shall  not  be  cut  off. 


VISION  VI 

The  sixth  section  is  long,  and  in  parts  obscure.     As  a  whole  it 
presents  the  work  of  redemption  exercised  upon  Zion.     It  there- 
fore stands  appropriately  before  the  final  judgment  that  is 
to  exalt  a  purified  Zion  amid  the  overthrow  of  the  nations. 
But  the  redeeming  work  is  an  ideal  picture  that  belongs  to  all 
periods  of  the  nation's  history,  and  it  must  not  be  limited  to  the 
restored  exiles  any  more  than  it  must  be  referred  to  the  sin  pre- 
ceding exile  ;  sin  and  redemption  from  sin  have  belonged  to  every 
period  of  Israel's  history,  and  the  return  of  sons  and  daughters  to 
the  City  of  Salvation  is  but  a  main  incident  used  as  a  universal 
image.     The  relation  of  this  sixth  Vision  to  the  section  that  fol- 
lows and  the  sections  that  precede  is  reflected  in  the  introductory 
sentences.     Playing  upon  the  two  meanings  of  the  word  they 
enjoin  righteousness  —  that  is,  doing  right  —  because  of 
the  near  approach  of  God's  righteousness  —  that  is,  set- 
ting right,  judgment  and  salvation.    Then,  with  references  back 
to  the  Babylonian  exile  which  has  inspired  so  much  in  the  pre- 
ceding sections,  invitations  are  spoken  to  the  stranger,  and  to  the 
physically  maimed,  to  join  the  Lord's  people :  the  Lord's  house 
shall  be  called  an  house  of  prayer  for  all  peoples. 

Then  the  Vision  seems  to  resolve  itself  into  a  series  of  pictures, 
in  which  is  seen  a  work  of  redemption.     The  first  picture  is  one 

of  unmeasured  national  corruption :  all  the  beasts 
Ivi.  9-lvii.  13  ,  .  .  , 

of  the  field  coming  to  devour,  and  the  watchmen 

blind  —  dumb  dogs  that  cannot  bark,  dreaming,  lying  down,  loving 


THE  RHAPSODY  OF  ' ZION  REDEEMED1  451 

to  slumber;  meanwhile  the  righteous  are  perishing  unheeded, 
with  none  to  mark  the  lesson  of  their  death.  Suddenly  is  heard 
the  Voice  of  Prophecy :  denouncing  the  sons  of  the  sorceress, 
unmasking  the  abominations  of  the  grove  and  murderous  sacri- 
fices of  the  rock  valleys,  exposing  the  apostasy  of  the  adulterous 
nation,  and  the  depths  of  debasement  to  which  they  will  descend 
in  seeking  any  protector  rather  than  their  God.  The  Voice  of 
Jehovah  speaks  encouragement,  and  the  Voice  of  Prophecy  con- 
tinues its  interpretation  of  the  Divine  thoughts. 

JEHOVAH 

Cast  ye  up,  cast  ye  up,  Ivii.  14-21 

Prepare  the  way, 
Take  up  the  stumblingblock 

Out  of  the  way  of  my  people. 

VOICE  OF  PROPHECY 

For  thus  saith  the  high  and  lofty  One  that  inhabiteth  eternity, 
whose  name  is  Holy :  I  dwell  in  the  high  and  holy  place,  with  him 
also  that  is  of  a  contrite  and  humble  spirit,  to  revive  the  spirit  of  the 
humble,  and  to  revive  the  heart  of  the  contrite  ones.  For  I  will  not 
contend  forever,  neither  will  I  be  always  wroth :  for  the  spirit  should 
fail  before  me,  and  the  souls  which  I  have  made.  For  the  iniquity 
of  his  covetousness  was  I  wroth :  .  .  .  and  he  went  on  frowardly  in 
the  way  of  his  heart.  I  have  seen  his  ways  and  will  heal  him. 

Fresh  words  of  Divine  encouragement  are  heard,  and  then  a 
third  picture  displays  those  who  love  righteous  ordinances  and 
delight  to  draw  near  unto  God ;  but  they  ask,  Wherefore  have  we 
fasted,  and  God  seeth  not?  The  answer  of  Prophecy  is 
that  they  fast  for  contention  and  for  their  own  pleasure. 
Is  this  the  fast  that  the  Lord  has  chosen,  that  a  man  should  afflict 
his  soul,  and  bow  down  his  head  like  a  rush,  and  spread  sackcloth 
and  ashes  under  his  feet?  Is  not  this  the  fast  acceptable  to  the 
Lord,  to  loose  the  bonds  of  wickedness,  and  let  the  oppressed  go 
free,  to  deal  bread  to  the  hungry,  and  cover  the  naked,  and  that 
thou  hide  not  thyself  from  thine  own  flesh  ?  Then  shall  thy  light 


452  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

break  forth  as  the  morning ;  thy  righteousness  shall  go  before  thee 
and  the  glory  of  Jehovah  be  thy  rearward. 

Then,  all  the  several  pictures  growing  together  into  one,  we 
have  Israel  rousing  itself  to  repentance.     The  Voice  of  Prophecy 

preaches  that  the  Lord's  hand  is  not  shortened  that  it 
liz 

cannot  save,  but  iniquities  have  come  between  the  people 

and  its  God.  Repentant  Israel  accepts  this  truth,  and  deplores 
how  they  grope  like  the  blind,  and  stumble  at  noonday ;  until 
judgment  is  turned  away  backward,  and  truth  fallen  in  the  streets. 
Then,  with  a  change  from  dramatic  presentation  to  direct  state- 
ment only  possible  in  a  Rhapsody,  it  is  said  that  the  Lord  saw  it, 
and  it  displeased  him  that  there  was  no  judgment,  and  none  to 
interpose  ;  wherefore  his  own  arm  wrought  salvation.  He  put  on 
righteousness  as  a  breast-plate,  and  a  helmet  of  salvation  on  his 
head ;  he  clothed  himself  with  garments  of  vengeance,  and  was 
clad  with  zeal  as  a  cloak  :  and  he  shall  come  like  a  rushing  stream, 
which  the  breath  of  the  Lord  driveth.  Thus  A  REDEEMER  SHALL 
COME  TO  ZION. 

At  once  the  lyric  songs  break  out  bidding  Zion  arise,  shine,  for 
her  light  is  come.  Darkness  shall  cover  the  earth,  and  gross  dark- 
ness the  peoples :  but  Jehovah  shall  arise  upon  Zion,  and 
nations  shall  be  drawn  to  her  light,  and  kings  to  the  bright- 
ness of  her  sunrise.  Her  heart  shall  be  enlarged  and  tremble  as 
she  beholds  the  multitudes  of  camels,  the  ships  flying  as  doves  to  the 
•windows,  all  bringing  her  sons  and  daughters  from  afar.  Her 
gates  shall  be  open  day  and  night  as  the  wealth  of  nations  flows 
into  her.  Violence  shall  not  be  heard  in  her  land ;  her  officers 
shall  be  peace,  and  her  exactors  righteousness  ;  her  walls  shall  be 
called  Salvation,  and  her  gates,  Praise :  and  her  sun  shall  no  more 
go  down,  for  it  shall  be  Jehovah,  an  everlasting  light. 

The  lyric  outburst  subsides  into  a  soliloquy  of  the  Redeemer 

that  has  thus  come  to  Zion  :  he  meditates  upon  his  glorious  task 

of  preaching  good  tidings  to  the  meek,  binding  up  the 

broken-hearted,  opening   the   prison  to   them   that   are 

bound,  proclaiming  the  day  of  God's  vengeance,  and  appointing 


THE  RHAPSOD  Y  OF  «  ZION  REDEEMED '  453 

to  the  mourners  of  Zion  the  garment  of  praise  for  the  spirit  of 
heaviness.    He  turns  even  then  to  speak  words  of  promise 
to   Zion,  and   Zion,  no   longer  desponding,  rejoices  in 
the  Lord  who  has  covered  her  with  the  robe  of  righteousness  as  a 
bride  is  adorned  with  jewels.    The  Redeemer,  in  response, 
will  for  Zion's  sake  know  no  peace  until  her  righteousness 
shine  before  all  kings.     She  shall  be  named  no  longer  Desolate, 
Forsaken  :  her  land  shall  be  Beulah,  for  her  sons  shall  marry  it, 
and  her  God  shall  rejoice  over  her  as  a  bridegroom  rejoices  over 
his  bride.     Then  the  Redeemer  cries  to  the  Watchmen  he  has  set 
upon  the  walls  to  give  the  Lord  no  rest  until  he  fulfil  his  word  to 
Zion.     The  section  ends  with   a  Chorus  of  Watchmen, 
who  cry  to  go  through  the  gates,  to  clear  the  way,  to  lift 
up  the  ensign  that  all  nations  can  see  :  for  the  Lord's  proclama- 
tion of  salvation  has  been  made  to  the  end  of  the  earth,  and  soon 
the  name  of  Jerusalem  will  be  the  City  Sought  out. 

Who  is  this  'Redeemer '  who  has  thus  come  to  Zion?  May  we 
identify  the  hero  of  this  sixth  section  of  the  Rhapsody  with  the 
hero  of  the  sections  that  preceded  ?  Is  the  '  Servant  of  Jehovah,' 
who  appeared  first  as  a  nation,  and  an  unfaithful  nation,  then  was 
purified  into  a  martyr,  then  into  a  personality  whose  vicarious 
sufferings  healed  the  nations,  to  be  still  farther  idealised  into  the 
Redeemer  sent  to  purify  Zion  in  the  sixth  vision,  and  the  Power 
that  descends  in  judgment  in  the  seventh  ?  Theology,  which  can 
link  one  book  of  Scripture  with  another,  may  answer  this  question. 
But  literary  criticism,  to  which  each  work  is  an  independent 
whole,  must  be  content  to  leave  this  great  problem  unsolved.  The 
phrase,  'Servant  of  Jehovah,'  that  has  represented  the  central 
thought  of  the  first  four  sections  of  the  rhapsody,  never  appears 
afterwards.  So  far  as  literary  expression  indicates,  the  final  sec- 
tions group  themselves  about  a  new  conception. 

VISION  VII 
The  seventh  section  is  to  bring  the  final  Judgment,  to  which  so 


454  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

much  of  what  precedes  has  been  pointing.     Its  keynote  is  struck 
ixiii-ixvi   by  a  Dramatic  Vision  of  Judgment. 

CHORUS  OF  WATCHMEN 

Who  is  this  that  cometh  from  Edom, 

With  crimsoned  garments  from  Bozrah  ? 
This  that  is  glorious  in  his  apparel, 

Marching  in  the  greatness  of  his  strength  ? 

HE  WHO   COMETH 

I  that  speak  in  righteousness, 
Mighty  to  save. 

CHORUS  OF  WATCHMEN 

Wherefore  art  thou  red 

In  thine  apparel, 

And  thy  garments 
Like  him  that  treadeth  in  the  winefat? 

HE  WHO  COMETH 

I  have  trodden  the  winepress  alone; 

And  of  the  peoples  there  was  no  man  with  me : 

Yea,  I  trod  them  in  mine  anger, 

And  trampled  them  in  my  fury ; 

And  their  lifeblood  is  sprinkled  upon  my  garments, 

And  I  have  stained  all  my  raiment. 

For  the  day  of  vengeance  was  in  mine  heart, 
And  the  year  of  my  redeemed  is  come. 
And  I  looked,  and  there  was  none  to  help; 
And  I  wondered  that  there  was  none  to  uphold : 

Therefore  mine  own  arm  brought  salvation  unto  me; 

And  my  fury,  it  upheld  me. 

And  I  trod  down  the  peoples  in  mine  anger, 

And  made  them  drunk  in  my  fury, 

And  I  poured  out  their  lifeblood  on  the  earth. 


THE  RHAPSOD  Y  OF  '  ZION  REDEEMED '  455 

Repentant  Israel  speaks,  and  gathers  the  whole  national  history 
into  a  liturgy  of  thanksgiving,  confession,  and   supplication   for 

judgment.     Beginning   is   made  with   the   loving- 

i  •     i  /.i  r  ,  •      Ixiii.  7-bdv 

kindnesses  of  the  Lord  :  he  was  the  saviour  of  his 

people,  in  all  their  afflictions  he  was  afflicted,  and  the  angel  of 
his  presence  saved  them.  But  they  were  rebellious,  and  grieved 
his  holy  spirit ;  until  he  was  turned  to  be  their  enemy  and  him- 
self fought  against  them.  Under  his  wrath  have  they  become  as 
the  heathen ;  they  have  been  delivered  into  the  power  of  their 
iniquities ;  they  have  faded  like  a  leaf  which  the  wind  of  their 
iniquities  driveth  about.  The  holy  cities  have  become  a  wilder- 
ness, Jerusalem  a  desolation ;  the  holy  and  beautiful  house  where 
the  fathers  worshipped  God  is  burned  with  fire.  Yet  is  Jehovah 
their  father,  though  Abraham  know  them  not,  and  Israel  refuse 
to  acknowledge  them.  Oh  that  God  would  rend  the  heavens, 
and  come  down,  that  the  mountains  might  flow  down  at  his 
presence  ! 

The  response  comes  in  the  JUDGMENT,  that  finally  separates 
between  the  holy  and  the  evil :  and  the  concluding  phase 
of  the  rhapsody  is  the  pendulum  movement  swinging  to 
and  fro  between  vengeance  and  glad  salvation. 

The  rebellious,  walking  in  their  own  way,  and  provoking  God 
with  their  abominations  —  their  works  shall  be  recompensed  into 
their   own   bosoms.     Bui  there  shall  be  a  seed  out  of 
Jacob ;  the  Lord's  chosen  shall  inherit  his  mountains; 
Sharon  shall  be  a  fold  of  flocks,  and  the  valley  of  Achor  a  place 
for  herds   to  lie  down  in.     But  those   that  prepare  a  table  to 
Fortune  and  pour  libations   to  Destiny,  destined   shall 
they  be  to  the  fortune  of  the  sword :  they  shall  perish, 
and  leave  only  a  name  to  curse  by.     But  he  that  blesseth  himself 
shall  bless  himself  by  the  God  of  Truth,  for  joy  of  the  new  heaven 
and  the  new  earth,  and  the  Holy  Mountain  in  which  the  seed  of 
the  blessed  shall  forget  their  troubles.     For  the  Lord's  dwelling 
is  not  in  a  builded  house,  but  in    the  poor  and  contrite  spirit. 
But  they  that  choose  their  own  ways,  and  delight  in  their  own 


456  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

abominations,  shall  find   Jehovah  also  choosing  their  delusions, 
lzvi          and  bringing  their  fears  upon  them.     For  a  moment  the 
section  becomes  lyrical. 

CONFUSED  CRIES 

A  voice  of  tumult  from  the  city ! 
A  voice  from  the  temple  ! 
A  voice  of  the  LORD  that  rendereth  recompense  to  his  enemies. 

VOICES   OF  THE  SAVED 

Before  she  travailed  she  brought  forth  ; 

Before  her  pain  came,  she  was  delivered  of  a  man  child! 
Who  hath  heard  such  a  thing  ?         * 
Who  hath  seen  such  things  ? 

Shall  a  land  be  born  in  one  day  ? 

Shall  a  nation  be  brought  forth  at  once? 
for  as  soon  as  Zion  travailed 

She  brought  forth  her  children. 

And  Jerusalem,  the  Divine  Voice  continues,  and  her  lovers  rejoice 
together,  her  peace  flowing  like  a  river.  While  Jehovah 
shall  come  in  fire  and  chariots  of  whirlwind  to  rebuke  his 

enemies  in  the  midst  of  their  abominations  :  and  a  standard  shall 

be  set  up,  that  all  nations  and  tongues  can  see  the  Lord's  glory, 

even  to  the  isles  afar  off  that  have  not  heard  his  fame.  And  out 
of  all  nations  shall  they  bring  the  brethren  of  Zion  as  an 
offering  unto  the  Lord,  and  the  seed  of  Israel  shall  be 

before  the  Lord  as  long  as  the  new  heavens  and  new  earth  shall 
remain.  And  all  flesh  shall  come  up  to  worship  at  the 
holy  feasts :  and  they  shall  go  forth  and  look  upon  the 

carcasses  of  the  transgressors,  for  their  worm  shall  not  die,  neither 

shall  their  fire  be  quenched. 


CHAPTER   XX 

THE   WORKS    OF    THE    PROPHETS 

WE  have  now  passed  in  review  all  the  various  literary  forms 
assumed  by  Prophecy.  It  remains  to  consider  the  contents  of 
the  prophetic  books  that  have  come  down  to  us. 

At  the  outset  two  important  points  call  for  notice.  One  is 
the  recognition  of  what  I  will  call  Prophetic  Sentences.  In 
our  examination  of  Wisdom  literature  we  saw *  that 
it  partly  consisted  in  isolated  sayings,  —  the  unit  sentences 
proverbs  and  the  short  maxims  and  epigrams  en- 
larged from  these ;  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  books  of 
wisdom  was  seen  to  be  occupied  with  such  independent  literary 
brevities,  and  works  that  were  specially  consecutive  in  argument, 
such  as  Ecclesiastes,  nevertheless  exhibited  portions  of  their 
whole  contents  given  up  to  such  miscellaneous  matter.  To  a 
much  smaller  extent  we  saw  in  Lyric  Poetry2  a  similar  aggre- 
gation of  brief  pcctic  sayings  or  ejaculations  to  make  longer 
poems.  It  is  not  surprising  then  that  in  Prophecy  also  we  should 
find,  besides  formal  discourses,  isolated  and  independent  Sen- 
tences, each  a  unit  of  prophetic  thought  on  some  single  topic. 
Perhaps  an  ideal  example  of  such  Prophetic  Sentences  is  given  by 
a  well-known  passage  of  Jeremiah.  This  passage  stands  between 
an  elegy  of  the  mourning  women  describing  a  devastated  land 
covered  with  carcasses,  and  another  prophecy  denouncing  uncir- 
cumcised  nations  by  name,  and  with  them  the  uncircumcised 

1  Above,  pages  102,  327,  330. 
a  Above,  page  199. 

457 


458  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

in   heart.     Its  distinctiveness  from  the  context  must  be  felt  by 
every  reader. 

Thus  saith  the  LORD,  Let  not  the  wise  man  glory  in  his  wisdom, 
neither  let  the  mighty  man  glory  in   his  might,  let  not   the   rich 

.  t  man  glory  in   his  riches:    but  let  him  that  glorieth  glory 

Jeremiah  ix.  33       .         . 

in   this,   that   he   understandeth,  and  knoweth  me,  that  I 

am  the  LORD  which  exercise  lovingkindness,  judgement,  and  right- 
eousness, in  the  earth :  for  in  these  things  I  delight,  saith  the 
LORD. 

Not  only  do   such  Prophetic  Sentences  exist,   but  from   the 
way  in  which  they  appear  in  more  than  one  place,  they  would 
seem  to  have  somewhat  of  the  floating  character 
jer.^vm.743l84;      of  Proverbs.    The  cry  of  '  fear,  and  the  pit,  and 
the    snare,'   already   seen    in    a    work  of  Isaiah, 
occurs  almost  without  a  change  in  Jeremiah.     "We  have  heard 
of  the   pride  of  Moab,  that   he   is  very  proud,"  is  a  gnome- 
like    sentence    found    both    in   Isaiah's   and    Jeremiah's    Doom 
Songs  on  Moab;    and  the  two   have   many  other  sentences  in 
common.    The  three  first  sayings  in  Obadiah's  Vision  of  Edom 
—  those  putting  the  ideas  of  an  ambassador  among  the  nations 
proclaiming   the   humiliation    of    Edom,    of   an    eagle    brought 
down    from  a  mountain   cleft,   of  grape-gatherers   and   robbers 
leaving    gleanings  —  all    occur    in    various   parts   of   Jeremiah's 
Doom   Song  against  the   same  nation.      And  a  Prophetic  Sen- 
tence  made   by  negation  of  the   proverb    about 
EZ*  xvm  9Q '         fathers   eating   sour  grapes   and   children's    teeth 
being  set  on   edge   is   found  as  an  independent 
saying  in  Jeremiah,  while  it  is  expanded  into  an  elaborate  dis- 
course by  Ezekiel. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  such  Prophetic  Sentences  are  found  in 
groups,  chiefly  at  the  close  of  a  series  of  longer  prophecies.  One 
such  group  follows  the  words  of  encouragement  given  by  Isaiah  to 
Ahaz  in  the  crisis  made  by  the  unnatural  alliance  of  Israel  with 
Syria  against  Judah. 


THE  WORKS   OF  THE  PROPHETS  459 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  the  LORD  shall  hiss  for 
the  fly  that  is  in  the  uttermost  part  of  the  rivers  of        .          . 
Egypt,  and   for  the  bee   that   is   in   the    land   of 
Assyria.     And  they  shall  come,  and  shall  rest  all  of  them  in  the 
desolate  valleys,  and  in  the  holes  of  the  rocks,  and  upon  all  thorns 
and  upon  all  pastures. 

V 

In  that  day  shall  the  Lord  shave  with  a  razor  that  is  hired,  which 
is  in  the  parts  beyond  the  River,  even  with  the  king  of  Assyria,  the 
head  and  the  hair  of  the  feet :  and  it  shall  also  consume  the  beard. 


And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  a  man  shall  nourish  a 
young  cow,  and  two  sheep ;  and  it  shall  come  to  pass,  for  the  abun- 
dance of  milk  that  they  shall  give  he  shall  eat  butter :  for  butter  and 
honey  shall  every  one  eat  that  is  left  in  the  midst  of  the  land. 


And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  every  place,  where  there 
were  a  thousand  vines  at  a  thousand  silverlings,  shall  even  be  for 
briers  and  thorns.  With  arrows  and  with  bow  shall  one  come 
thither;  because  all  the  land  shall  be  briers  and  thorns.  And  all 
the  hills  that  were  digged  with  the  mattock,  thou  shalt  not  come 
thither  for  fear  of  briers  and  thorns,  but  it  shall  be  for  the  sending 
forth  of  oxen,  and  for  the  treading  of  sheep. 

The  isolation  of  the  first  passage  is  the  clearer  from  the  fact  that 
in  this  portion  of  Isaiah  there  is  no  mention  of  Egypt :  Assyria 
is  the  avenging  force  foreseen  in  that  crisis.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  an  individuality  about  each  of  the  four  passages,  such 
as  would  readily  give  them  currency  as  prophetic  epigrams  (so 
to  speak)  :  the  prophecy  of  the  fly  and  the  bee,  of  the  hired 
razor,  of  butter  and  honey,  of  briers  and  thorns.  We  have  seen 
that  repetition  and  reiteration  play  a  great  part  in  a  prophet's 

1  In  my  own  judgment  the  preceding  verse  (17)  also  is  an  independent 
•  Sentence,'  and  addressed,  not  to  the  king  of  Judah,  but  to  the  king  of  Israel. 
This,  however,  is  so  contrary  to  the  usual  view  of  the  passage,  that  I  can  only 
refer  the  reader  to  my  full  discussion  in  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible  (Isaiah,  pages 
223-30). 


460  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

ministry ;  such  epigrammatic  sayings  would  be  repeated  by  the 
prophet  on  occasion  after  occasion  of  his  preaching,  until  the  text 
could  pass  into  popular  use,  while  the  prophet's  discourse  on  it 
would  adapt  itself  to  circumstances.  Nor  is  it  any  objection 
against  the  separation  of  these  four  passages  that  they  are  all 
referred  to  a  time  expressed  by  the  words  "  in  that  day  :  "  on  the 
contrary,  we  find  a  few  phrases  —  "in  that  day,"  "in  those  days," 
"  the  days  come  "  —  that  seem  to  be  used  as  regular  formulae  for 
introducing  a  prophecy. 

Another  series  of  such  Sentences  is  found  following  Isaiah's 
Doom  Song  against  Egypt.  It  differs  from  the  last  in  the  fact 
that  all  have  a  common  thought,  —  the  future  conversion  of  Egypt ; 
if  the  other  Sentences  were  like  proverbs,  this  series  corresponds 
to  the  proverb  cluster. 


Isaiah          In  that  day  there  shall  be  five  cities  in  the  land  of  Egypt  that  speak 
xix.  18-    tjjg  ianguage  of  Canaan,  and  swear  to  the  LORD  of  hosts;  one  shall 
be  called  The  City  of  Destruction. 


In  that  day  shall  there  be  an  altar  to  the  LORD  in  the  midst  of  the 
land  of  Egypt,  and  a  pillar  at  the  border  thereof  to  the  LORD.  And 
it  shall  be  for  a  sign  and  for  a  witness  unto  the  LORD  of  hosts  in  the 
land  of  Egypt;  for  they  shall  cry  unto  the  LORD  because  of  the 
oppressors,  and  he  shall  send  them  a  saviour,  and  a  defender,  and 
he  shall  deliver  them. 


And  the  LORD  shall  be  known  to  Egypt,  and  the  Egyptians  shall 
know  the  LORD  in  that  day;  yea,  they  shall  worship  with  sacrifice 
and  oblation,  and  shall  vow  a  vow  unto  the  LORD,  and  shall  perform 
it. 

*** 

And  the  LORD  shall  smite  Egypt,  smiting  and  healing;  and  they 
shall  return  unto  the  LORD,  and  he  shall  be  intreated  of  them,  and 
shall  heal  them. 


THE   WORKS   OF  THE  PROPHETS  461 

In  that  day  shall  there  be  a  high  way  out  of  Egypt  into  Assyria, 
and  the  Assyrian  shall  come  into  Egypt,  and  the  Egyptian  into 
Assyria;  and  the  Egyptians  shall  worship  with  the  Assyrians. 


In  that  day  shall  Israel  be  the  third  with  Egypt  and  with  ^Assyria, 
a  blessing  in  the  midst  of  the  earth  :  for  that  the  LORD  of  hosts  hath 
blessed  them,  saying,  Blessed  be  Egypt  my  people,  and  Assyria  the 
work  of  my  hands,  and  Israel  mine  inheritance. 


The  prominence  of  such  independent  '  Sentences '  in  Hosea 
has  been  noted  from  the  time  of  St.  Jerome  downwards.  An  in- 
teresting example  of  their  occurrence  is  found  in  the 
Book  of  Zechariah,  where  the  prophet  reads  a  collection 
of  the  Sayings  of  a  former  age,  before  he  proceeds  to  add 
prophetic  Sayings  of  his  own.  A  formal  inquiry  has  been  made 
to  Zechariah,  whether  the  old  fasts,  established  during  the  humili- 
ation of  the  sacred  city,  are  binding  now  she  is  restored.  In  his 
response  he  says : 

Should  ye  not  hear  the  words  which  the  LORD  hath  cried  by  the 
former  prophets,  when  Jerusalem  was  inhabited  and  in  prosperity, 
and  the  cities  thereof  round  about  her,  and  the  South  and  the  low- 
lands were  inhabited? 

(He  proceeds  to  quote  some  of  these  'words' :) 

"Thus  hath  the  LORD  of  hosts  spoken,  saying,  Execute  true 
judgement,  and  shew  mercy  and  compassion  every  man  to  his 
brother  :  and  oppress  not  the  widow,  nor  the  fatherless,  the  stranger, 
nor  the  poor;  and  let  none  of  you  imagine  evil  against  his  brother 
in  your  heart." 

(Zechariah  comments  on  this :  that  it  was  the  breach  of  com- 
mands like  these,  and  not  failure  in  the  observance  of  fasts,  that 
brought  destruction  on  the  land.  He  now  proceeds  to  read  other 
oracles.) 


462  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

viii.  1-8  "And  the  word  of  the  LORD  of  hosts  came  to  me  saying,  Thus 
saith  the  LORD  of  hosts :  I  am  jealous  for  Zion  with  great  jealousy, 
and  I  am  jealous  for  her  with  great  fury." 


"  Thus  saith  the  LORD  :  I  am  returned  unto  Zion,  and  will  dwell 
in  the  midst  of  Jerusalem :  and  Jerusalem  shall  be  called,  The  City 
of  Truth ;  and  the  mountain  of  the  LORD  of  hosts,  The  Holy  Moun- 
tain." 


"  Thus  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts :  There  shall  yet  old  men  and  old 
women  dwell  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem,  every  man  with  his  staff  in 
his  hand  for  very  age.  And  the  streets  of  the  city  shall  be  full  of 
boys  and  girls  playing  in  the  streets  thereof." 


"  Thus  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts :  If  it  be  marvellous  in  the  eyes  of 
the  remnant  of  this  people  in  those  days,  should  it  also  be  marvellous 
in  mine  eyes  ?  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts." 


"Thus  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts:  Behold  I  will  save  my  people 
from  the  east  country,  and  from  the  west  country :  and  I  will  bring 
them,  and  they  shall  dwell  in  the  midst  of  Jerusalem;  and  they 
shall  be  my  people,  and  I  will  be  their  God,  in  truth  and  in 
righteousness." 

So  far  Zechariah  has  been  reading  entirely  from  former  prophets  : 
he  proceeds  to  comment  on  these  '  Sentences.' 

Thus  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts :  Let  your  hands  be  strong,  ye  that 
hear  in  these  days,  these  words  from  the  mouth  of  the  prophets,  which 
were  in  the  day  that  the  foundation  of  the  house  of  the  LORD  of 
hosts  was  laid.  .  .  . 

He  proceeds  to  connect  together  the  Sentences  of  the  prophets 
of  Israel's  prosperous  days,  and  those  of  the  prophets  who  in  her 
obscurity  promised  restoration,  and  argues  that  now  the  happy 


THE   WORKS   OF  THE  PROPHETS  463 

restoration  is  effected  the  old  command  of  justice  and  mercy  is 
appropriate,  and  not  the  fear  which  found  expression  in  fasting. 
His  argument  concluded,  he  embodies  his  truth  in  the  formal 
commands  of  inspired  prophecy :  and  this  prophecy  again  falls 
into  the  form  of  independent  Sentences. 

And  the  word  of  the  LORD  of  hosts  came  unto  me,  saying,  Thus 
saith  the  LORD  of  hosts :  The  fast  of  the  fourth  month,  and 
the  fast  of  the  fifth,  and  the  fast  of  the  seventh,  and  the 
fast  of  the  tenth,  shall  be  to  the  house  of  Judah  joy  and  gladness, 
and  cheerful  feasts;  therefore  love  truth  and  peace. 


Thus  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts :  It  shall  yet  come  to  pass,  that  there 
shall  come  peoples,  and  the  inhabitants  of  many  cities:  and  the 
inhabitants  of  one  city  shall  go  to  another,  saying,  Let  us  go  speedily 
to  intreat  the  favour  of  the  LORD,  and  to  seek  the  LORD  of  hosts :  I 
will  go  also.  Yea,  many  peoples  and  strong  nations  shall  come  to 
seek  the  LORD  of  hosts  in  Jerusalem,  and  to  intreat  the  favour  of 
the  LORD. 

V 

Thus  saith  the  LORD  of  hosts:  In  those  days  it  shall  come  to 
pass,  that  ten  men  shall  take  hold,  out  of  all  the  languages  of 
the  nations,  shall  even  take  hold  of  the  skirt  of  him  that  is  a 
Jew,  saying,  We  will  go  with  you,  for  we  have  heard  that  God  is 
with  you.  • 

It  is  clear  that  the  recognition  of  such  Sentences,  not  as  an 
accident,  but  as  a  regular  feature  of  prophetic  literature,  makes 
a  great  difference  to  the  exegesis  of  particular  pas-  Recognitlon  of 
sages.     The  documents  which  preserve  the  litera-   Sentences  in 
ture  of  antiquity  have  not  the  clear  separation  of  exe£e818 
parts,  and  even  of  whole  compositions,  that  modern  printing  has 
made  for  us  a  matter  of  course ;  and  there  is  no  element  in  exe- 
gesis more  important,  or  more  difficult,  than  the  determination 
exactly  where  a  literary  section  of  Scripture  begins  and  ends.    Of 
course,  in  all  interpretation  difference  of  opinion  will  arise.     I  am 


464  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

merely  contending  for  the  arrangement  in  isolated  Sentences  as  a 
legitimate  resource  of  exegesis.  And  with  regard  to  any  particular 
passage  the  question  must  be,  not  whether  it  is  possible  by  inge- 
nuity or  by  straining  to  weave  it  into  a  continuous  whole,  but 
whether,  all  things  considered,  any  succession  of  words  may  be 
better  regarded  as  a  portion  of  a  whole  or  as  an  independent 
aphorism. 

The  second  of  our  preliminary  considerations  is  the  Prophetic 
Cycle.     Considerable  part  of  our  prophetic  literature  is  found  to 

consist  in  series  of  discourses,  or  incidents,  or  rhap- 
T° es  op  ~  sodies,  succeeding  one  another  just  as  the  contents 

of  a  modern  volume  of  serm'ons.  But  sometimes 
separate  prophecies  are  united  together  by  some  essential  bond, 
whether  of  structural  connection  or  of  related  subject-matter.  In 
this  second  case  the  word  Cycle  seems  appropriate.  It  has  been 
remarked  in  a  former  chapter  that  all  the  discourses  of  Malachi 
have  the  same  structural  plan :  the  discourse  near  its  commence- 
ment is  interrupted  by  an  imaginary  objection,  or  more  than  one 
objection,  and  these  become  the  real  starting-point  of  what  fol- 
lows. The  recurrence  of  this  scholastic  device  makes  the  whole 
Book  of  Malachi  a  single  Dialectic  Cycle.  Again,  we  have  seen 
how  the  denunciations  against  Israel  and  seven  other  nations  at 
the  opening  of  Amos  are  in  structure  exactly  parallel :  they  con- 
stitute a  Cycle  of  Dooms.  The  last  section  of  this  prophecy  is  a 
series  of  emblems  (presented  in  vision),  ascending  one  above 
another  in  nearness  to  the  crisis  and  issue :  this  is  an  Emblem 
Cycle.  Such  illustrations  of  the  term  are  easy ;  one  or  two  usages 
need  more  discussion. 

The  portion  of  Isaiah  that  extends  from  chapter  twenty-eight  to 
chapter  thirty-five  is  best  considered  as  a  Cycle  and  not  merely  a 

series  of  discourses.  The  bond  of  connection  is 
Isaiah  ixviii  ye].y  Definite  .  a]j  tne  discourses  are  animadversions 

on  a  political  situation,  chronic  rather  than  special, 
but  this  is  made  a  background  for  pictures  of  the  restoration  of 
Israel,  or  a  remnant  of  Israel,  in  a  golden  age  or  Messianic  king- 


THE   WORKS   OP    THE  PROPHETS  465 

dom.     In  the  first  discourse  Isaiah  denounces  the  dissoluteness 
of  Judah's   priestly  and   prophetic  rulers  as  on  a  par 
with  that   of  Israel's  kingdom,  and  exposes  the  secret 
ground  of  their  lightheartedness  amid  national  apprehensions  — 
the  'covenant  with  death  and  agreement  with  hell'  they  have 
made  for  themselves,  so  that  the  overflowing  scourge  will  pass 
them  by.    This  secret  confidence  he  calls  a  refuge  of  lies,  and  in 
contrast  upholds  Jehovah's  foundation-stone  laid  in  Zion,  by  the 
strength  of  which  he  will  be  a  diadem  of  beauty  to  the  residue 

that  believe  in  him.    The  spirit  of  the  second  discourse 

zziz 
is  similar  ;  and  here  we  read  of  "  the  multitude  of  all  the 

nations  that  fight  against  Ariel."  In  the  third  and  fourth,  when 
an  embassy  has  been  openly  sent  to  Egypt,  the 
prophet  pours  contempt  on  the  alliance  with  the 
"  Boaster  that  sitteth  still,"  which  shall  become  to  Israel  like  a 
breach  ready  to  fall,  swelling  out  in  a  high  wall.  But  after  fore- 
telling ruin  he  springs  to  a  glad  future,  gradually  ascending  from  a 
state  of  external  affliction  relieved  only  by  the  blessing  of  spiritual 
guidance,  to  a  golden  tide  in  a  plenteous  land,  when  the  light  of 
the  moon  shall  be  as  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  the  light  of  the  sun 
shall  be  sevenfold,  and  idols  shall  be  utterly  cast  out.  The  same 
combination  of  elements  marks  all  the  discourses.  The  conclu- 
sion of  the  series  is  made  by  companion  pictures  of  ideal  destruc- 
tion and  ideal  restoration.  Edom  is  named  as  the  foe,  but  the 
details  show  that  this  is  used  only  as  a  type  of  hostile  forces  :  for 
so  universal  is  the  destruction  that  all  the  host  of  heaven  are  seen 
to  moulder  away,  and  the  heavens  roll  together  as  a  scroll  ; 
streams  of  earth  become  pitch  and  its  dust  brimstone, 

xxxiv 

the  smoke  of  it  going  up  for  ever;   palaces   are  over- 
grown with  thorns  and  thistles,  fit  habitation  for  jackals,  where  the 
wild  beasts  meet  with  the  wolves,  and  the  satyr  cries  to  his  fellow. 
The  contrasting  picture  l  is  of  the  wilderness  and  the  soli- 


l  It  will  be  understood  of  course  that  the  date  of  this  prophecy,  whether  of  its 
composition  or  of  that  to  which  it  may  refer,  does  not  affect  the  argument:  we  are 
here  concerned  with  the  order  of  prophecies  as  they  stand,  whoever  may  be 
responsible  for  the  arrangement 


466  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

tary  place  being  glad,  and  the  desert  blossoming  as  the  rose; 
the  glowing  sand  becomes  a  pool,  the  habitation  of  jackals 
green  with  reeds  and  rushes :  and  a  way  of  holiness  stretches 
across,  over  which  the  ransomed  of  the  LORD  return  to  Zion,  with 
everlasting  joy  upon  their  heads.  Discourses  with  such  commu- 
nity of  treatment,  brought  to  such  a  common  climax,  make  what 
may  be  called  a  Cycle  of  Judgment  and  Restoration. 

Again,  there  is  a  Vision  Cycle  of  much  literary  interest  in  our 

Book  of  Zechariah.     The   hopes   of   the   Temple-builders    are 

strengthened  by  a  series  of  visions ;  not  only  do 

vision  Cycle:        these  visions  belong  to  the  same  dream  and  have  a 

Zechariah  i.  7- 

vi.  a  common  reference,  but  further,  by  a  beautiful  touch 

of  vision  effect,  they  are  enclosed  in  another  '  En- 
veloping Vision,'  which  remains  constant  while  the  others  come 
and  go,  dreams  within  a  dream.  The  prophet  relates  how  "  in 
the  night "  he  beheld  horses,  red,  sorrel,  and  white,  among  the 
myrtle  trees,  and  these  are  interpreted  to  him  as  spirits  of  minis- 
tration that  go  to  and  fro  in  the  earth.  This  is  the  Enveloping 
Vision,  —  as  it  were  the  machinery  for  carrying  out  whatever  by 
special  vision  may  be  made  known :  and  it  seems  to  remain  in 
the  background  during  all  that  follows.  At  present  the  report  is 
that  the  earth  sitteth  still  and  is  at  rest ;  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
appeals  for  mercy  on  Jerusalem  to  tarry  no  longer,  and  is  answered 
with  comfortable  words.  The  Lord  will  retuni  to  Jerusalem  with 
mercies  :  and  each  of  these  mercies  is  symbolised  in  a  vision,  the 
prophet  feeling  himself,  as  it  were,  wakened  from  sleep  to  behold 
each.  The  first  vision  is  of  Horns  and  Smiths  :  the  for- 
mer are  interpreted  of  the  nations  that  have  lifted  them- 
selves up  against  Jerusalem,  the  latter  of  the  forces  that  shall  fray 
these  and  cast  them  down.  A  second  vision  shows  a  man  with  a 
measuring  line,  going  to  measure  Jerusalem :  for  its  inhabitants 
shall  increase  till  it  must  needs  be  inhabited  as  villages  without 
walls.  The  third  vision  presents  the  hierarchy  of  heaven,  and 
the  High  Priest  Joshua  (representative  of  the  Temple-builders) 
assailed  by  the  Adversary ;  but  the  Adversary  is  rebuked,  and 


THE   WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  467 

Joshua  is  clad  in  rich  apparel,  with  a  mitre  set  on  his  head.  The 
next  appearance  is  of  the  Golden  Candlestick :  this  final  piece  of 
Temple  furniture  symbolises  how  Zerubbabel  shall  complete  as  well 
as  begin  his  good  work.  While  the  prophet  watches  this  he  is 
aware  of  the  two  olive  trees  on  either  side  of  it :  this  is  a  separate 
emblem,  giving  authority  for  associating  the  two  '  sons  of  oil,'  — 
the  prince  Zerubbabel  and  the  priesthood.  Two  more  visions 
foreshadow  the  moral  purification  of  the  land  :  the  Flying  Roll  of 
the  Curse  indicating  crime  purged  out  of  the  country,  and  Wicked- 
ness in  the  ephah  pressed  down  by  the  weight  of  a  talent  showing 
how  the  wickedness  of  the  land  shall  be  banished,  as  the  visionary 
figure  is  banished,  into  the  wilderness.  The  succession  of  indi- 
vidual mercies  concluded,  the  Enveloping  Vision  resumes  :  chariots 
are  now  added  to  the  horses,  from  between  the  two  mountains  of 
brass  :  and  they  are  to  depart  to  the  four  winds  of  heaven  to  exe- 
cute the  will  of  the  Lord.  The  unity  that  is  implied  in  all  Cycles 
reaches  a  climax  in  such  enveloping  of  symbolic  details  in  the 
symbol  of  that  which  is  to  provide  for  their  execution. 

These  preliminary  considerations  disposed  of,  the  remaining 
task  of  this  chapter  becomes  easy.  In  the  Appendix  to  this  work 
I  attempt  to  analyse  the  contents  of  each  book  of  prophecy,  sepa- 
rating discourses  and  sentences,  indicating  the  nature  of  each, 
and,  where  convenient,  adding  titles.  Here  it  is  only  necessary 
to  sum  up. 

In  several  cases  the  contents  of  a  prophetic  work  consist  of  a 
single  composition.  Obadiah,  Nahum,  and  Zephaniah  have  left 

only  a  single  Discourse  :  the  same  may  be  said  of 

'  .       Contents  of  Pro- 

Amos,  unless  indeed  the  first  two  verses  are  to  be  pnetic  Books 

isolated  as  an  Oracle  of  the  Earthquake.1     The 

Book  of  Jonah  we  have  in  a  former  chapter  seen  to  be  a  single 

prophetic  Epic.    We  have  also  seen  that  the  books 

Shorter  books 
Qijoel  and  Habakkuk  resolve  themselves  each  into 

l 1  have  so  arranged  in  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible :  see  Minor  Prophets  volume, 
page  249. 


468  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

a  single  Rhapsody.  In  Haggai  we  find  four  Occasional  Discourses, 
regularly  dated.  And  we  have  seen  that  the  prophecy  of  Malachi 
may  be  regarded  as  a  Dialectic  Cycle. 

The  rest  of  prophetic  literature  shows  more  complexity.  It 
may  be  pointed  out  that  when  we  speak  of  'The  Book  of  the 
prophet  Jeremiah,'  we  are  using  an  ambiguous  term.  The  whole 
works  of  this  prophet,  as  of  others,  fall  into  several  '  books ' ;  just 
as  what  in  ordinary  parlance  is  called  '  The  Book  of  Psalms ' 
appears  in  the  Revised  Version  as  five  books,  clearly  separated  by 
doxologies. 

Our  Book  of  Isaiah  falls  naturally  into  seven  books.1  The  first 
is  made  up  of  general  prophecies,  ending  with  the  Vision 
of  the  Call.  Six  chapters  contain  Occasional  prophecies, 
one  set  relating  to  the  Unholy  Alliance  of  Israel  with  Syria, 
another  inspired  by  Assyrian  Invasion.  The  fourth  book  contains 
the  Doom  Songs  collected  together:  these  may  be  considered 
to  make  a  Cycle  of  Doom,  as  they  are  followed  by  the  general 
Rhapsody  of  Judgment  upon  the  whole  earth.  I  have  already  in 
discussing  the  word  '  cycle '  described  the  next  section  of  Isaiah 
as  a  Cycle  of  Judgment  and  Restoration.  As  a  sixth  book  we 
have  a  brief  historical  excerpt,  bringing  out  Isaiah's  action  in  the 
great  crisis  of  Sennacherib's  invasion.  The  last  book  is  the 
Rhapsody  of  Zion  Redeemed?1 

The  discourses  of  Jeremiah  seem  to  be  grouped  in  more  numer- 
ous divisions,  making  ten  books  in  all.  After  a  section  occupied 

by   the   prophet's   Call,   and   general  Manifesto   of  his 
Jeremiah       J.   . 

ministry,   we   have   a   second   containing  miscellaneous 

discourses  and  sentences.  Then  follow  several  clear  groups, 
founded  on  a  Missionary  journey,  on  the  Drought,  on  Pottery, 
on  Messages  to  Rulers.  The  seventh  book  is  largely  occupied 
with  Controversies;  the  eighth  contains  the  prophecies  of  the 
Restoration.  A  book  follows  of  Incidental  discourses  and  pro- 

1  Compare  the  Literary  Index  throughout. 

2  It  will  be  understood  that  the  question  whether  this  section  is  from  the  same 
author  as  preceding  parts  of  Isaiah  is  outside  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 


THE   WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  469 

phetic  history ;  and  the  collection  of  Doom  Songs  concludes  the 
series. 

It  is  usual  to  divide  our  Book  of  Ezekiel  into  three  parts,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  Doom  prophecies  appear  in  the  centre,  between 
prophecies  mainly  of  judgment  and  prophecies  of  restor- 
ation. But  if  regard  be  had  to  the  most  distinctive 
peculiarity  of  this  prophet,  which  consists  in  his  founding  his  dis- 
courses on  symbolism  and  imagery,  another  arrangement  becomes 
possible.  The  writings  of  Ezekiel  now  fall  into  seven  books.  The 
central  book  is  a  single  unbroken  discourse,  in  which  is  laid  before 
the  Inquiring  Elders  the  whole  scope  of  the  prophet's  message  : 
this  corresponds  to  the  Prophet's  Manifesto  in  other  parts  of 
Scripture.  The  other  six  books  of  Ezekiel  contain  each  seven 
discourses,  with  a  tendency  for  the  last  discourse  of  a  book  to  be 
itself  sevenfold  in  structure.  The  Call  of  this  prophet  is  threefold  : 
four  more  discourses  complete  the  Opening  of  his  Message  and 
the  first  book.  The  second  book  may  be  entitled  The  Sevenfold 
Token;  that  which  follows,  The  Sevenfold  Parable.  The  fifth 
book  offers  Seven  Last  Words,  immediately  before  the  Fall  o* 
Jerusalem.  Then  follow  the  D&om  prophecies,  seven  in  number. 
The  final  book  starts  from  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  a  series 
of  seven  discourses  holds  out  hopes  of  a  glorious  Restoration. 
The  first  and  last  books  are  bound  together  by  the  companion 
visions  of  Jerusalem  in  her  Pollution  and  Jerusalem  in  her  Glory. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  may  be  considered  to  have  a  twofold  or  a 
sevenfold  division.     It  contains  six  Prophetic  Incidents  and  Inter- 
pretations of  Visions,  arranged  in  chronological  order ;  Danicl 
then  a  Cycle  of  Visions  seen  by  the  prophet  himself.  Micah 
Micah  is  made  up  of  an  elaborate  Discourse  of  Judgment     osea 
and  Salvation  and,  what  in  a  literary  sense  is  most  dissimilar,  two 
striking  and  brief  dramatic  prophecies.   The  arrangement  oiHosea 
is  interesting.     It  falls  naturally  into  seven  divisions.    The  middle 
sections  are  brief  discourses,  or  collections  of  prophetic  Sentences. 
The  opening  and  closing  sections  are  elaborate  presentations  of 
this  prophet's  most  distinctive  teaching  —  God's  passionate  love 


470  BIBLICAL   LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

for  Israel :   the  first  is  the  Emblem  of  Gomer,  the  last  is  the 
Drama  of  the  Divine  Yearning. 

The  Biblical  Book  of  Zechariah  makes  a  special  case.  It  falls 
into  two  parts,  altogether  dissimilar.  The  first  eight  chapters  are 
miscellaneous  prophecies,  expressly  associated  with  the 
personality  of  the  historical  Zechariah.  But  the  remain- 
der of  the  book  is  of  so  very  different  a  character  that  nothing 
but  respect  for  tradition  would  have  associated  it  with  Zechariah's 
name.  I  have  so  far  followed  custom  as  to  arrange,  in  the  Index 
to  this  work,  Zechariah  in  two  '  books.'  But  it  is  well  to  point 
out  that  the  ascription  of  what  appears  as  the  second  book  to 
Zechariah  may  well  be  no  more  than  an  accident.  Nothing  can 
be  more  natural  than  to  suppose  that,  in  the  Roll  of  Prophets,  the 
works  of  known  authors  should  come  first,  up  to  Zechariah  (our 
Zechariah  i-viii),  and  that  then  should  follow  anonymous  prophe- 
cies cited  under  subject- titles.  One  of  these  subject-titles  would 
be  Malachi,  or  'My  Messenger' :  for  the  word  is  quite  unlike  a 
personal  name,  and  the  Septuagint  treats  it  as  a  subject- title, 
while  the  Targum  makes  Ezra  the  author  of  the  book  so  entitled. 
When,  however, '  Malachi '  came  to  be  read  as  a  personal  name, 
like  the  names  of  the  prophets  from  Isaiah  to  Zechariah,  it  was 
natural  that  the  intervening  prophecies,  with  no  author's  name  to 
cover  them,  should  attach  themselves  to  the  preceding  book  of 
Zechariah.  A  slight  confirmation  of  this  suggestion,  in  itself  so 
probable,  appears  from  the  citations  of  the  New  Testament.  Four 
times  the  disputed  portion  of  Zechariah  is  quoted  by  New  Testa- 
ment writers1 :  three  of  the  citations  are  given  without  author's 
name,  the  fourth  is  ascribed  to  Jeremiah.  This  last  would  have 
to  be  regarded  as  a  misquotation,  except  by  the  theory  here  sug- 
gested, in  which  case  the  whole  Roll  of  Prophets  is  cited  by  the 
longest  prophecy,  that  of  Jeremiah,  as  the  whole  Book  of  Psalms 
is  cited  by  the  name  of  a  chief  contributor,  David. 

1  Matthew  xxvii.  9-10  (compare  Zechariah  xi.  12-13) ;  Zechariah  ix.  9  (in 
Matthew  xxi.  5  and  John  xii.  15) ;  chapter  xii.  10  (in  John  xix.  37) ;  xiii.  7  (in 
Matthew  xxvi.  31  and  Mark  xiv.  27). 


THE    WORKS  OF  THE  PROPHETS  471 

This  completes  the  list  of  Old  Testament  prophets.  But  the 
New  Testament  furnishes  a  book  which  must  be  considered  in  this 
connection.  The  Revelation  of  St.  John  is  too 
closely  involved  with  modern  theological  questions  Re'Veution 
to  admit  of  its  being  discussed  in  a  work  from 
which  distinctively  religious  matter  is  excluded.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  literary  study  of  Scripture  it  is  impossible  to  ignore  a 
composition  of  such  transcendent  literary  interest.  If  a  reader 
will  apply  to  this  book  of  Revelation  a  method  which  ought  to  be 
applied  to  all  parts  of  Scripture,  and  set  himself  to  take  in  the 
whole  at  a  sitting,  reading  with  his  imagination  on  the  stretch  in 
the  way  in  which  he  would  read  Dante's  Hell,  Purgatory,  and 
Paradise,  he  will  find,  whatever  his  theological  principles  may  be, 
that  this  Vision  Cycle  is  one  of  the  literary  wonders  of  the  world. 
I  will  be  content  with  making  two  remarks  on  the  subject,  and 
with  these  my  treatment  of  Biblical  Prophecy  may  be  brought  to 
a  conclusion. 

The  title  contains  the  word  '  revelation.'  But  in  our  discussion 
of  prophetic  forms  we  saw  that  this  word  had  two  distinct  mean- 
ings :  revelation  of  the  future,  as  in  the  visions  of 
Daniel,  and  revelation  of  the  ideal,  as  in  Ezekiel's  y^"118  °f  the 
Visions  of  Jerusalem,  or  the  original  revelation  to 
Moses  in  the  mount.  Which  of  these  meanings  applies,  or  do 
they  both  apply,  to  the  work  of  St.  John?  The  popular  mind  has 
seized  upon  the  first  of  these,  and  looks  upon  St.  John's  Revela- 
tion as  a  prophetic  riddle,  the  ingenious  reading  of  which  will  give 
a  clue  to  events  of  past  or  future  history,  or  will  even  enable  the 
present  to  be  exactly  located  in  some  scheme  of  all  time.  But  if 
the  words  of  the  prologue,  "  the  things  which  must  shortly  come 
to  pass,"  and  the  parallels  with  Daniel's  visions,  favour  the  view 
that  the  revelation  is  a  foreshowing,  yet  on  the  other  hand  the 
equally  close  parallels  with  Ezekiel's  visions,  and  the  building  up 
of  the  whole  structure  upon  symbolic  symmetries,  counterparts, 
and  antitheses,  make  it  certain  that  the  idealising  of  the  world- 
contest  between  good  and  evil  is  of  the  very  essence-  of  the 


472  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE    OF  PROPHECY 

work.1  Moreover,  if  both  kinds  of  revelation  belong  to  this  book, 
they  will  mutually  modify  one  another.  Suppose  that  some  specially 
distinctive  detail  of  the  symbolism  suggests  connection  with  some 
historic  power  or  institution :  then,  by  the  influence  of  the  other 
type  of  revelation,  we  must  expect  that  historic  reality  to  be  ideal- 
ised in  the  movement  of  the  vision,  so  that  it  would  still  be 
hazardous  exegesis  to  interrogate  other  details  of  the  symbolism 
for  further  historic  details.  I  have  before  remarked  upon  the  way 
in  which  prophetic  literature  as  a  whole  has  suffered  from  the 
unfortunate  narrowing  of  the  word  'prophecy'  in  ordinary  con- 
versation to  the  single  sense  of  prediction.  No  part  of  prophetic 
literature  has  suffered  so  much  in  this  respect  as  St.  John's  Reve- 
lation ;  and  the  literary  student,  at  all  events,  should  address  him- 
self to  those  permanent  spiritual  interests  of  the  book  which  are 
independent  of  times  and  seasons. 

But  the  Book  of  Revelation   presents  another  feature  of  the 

highest  interest  and  significance.    It  may  be  expressed  in  a  phrase 

of  the  vision  itself :  "  The  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the 

Association  of  its  spirjt  of  prophecy."     Underlying  the  whole  book 

details  with 

other  prophecy       1S  tne  1(Jea  O*8*  tne     revelation  of  Jesus  Christ 

is  a  bringing  together  and  enhancing  of  all  pre- 
vious revelations;  and  accordingly  in  the  symbolic  scenery  of  the 
visions,  and  the  phrases  by  which  they  are  described,  the  concep- 
tions of  Old  Testament  prophecy  are  continually  appearing  in  new 
forms  and  combinations.  At  the  outset,  when  the  Apostle  speaks 
of  being  '  in  the  Spirit,'  we  think  of  Ezekiel  borne  by  the  spirit  to 
Jerusalem.  The  prefatory  messages  to  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia,  with  their  individual  details  and  rhythmic  promises  and 
threats,  remind  us  of  the  chain  of  denunciations  in  similar  form 
on  seven  nations  with  which  Amos  opens  his  prophecy,  before  he 
deals  with  his  church  of  Israel.  In  the  vision  itself  we  begin  at 
once  to  get  details  from  Old  Testament  prophets.  The  personal 

1  Among  the  many  commentaries  on  this  book  I  may  mention  (the  late)  Professor 
Milligan's  Revelation  (in  the  Expositor's  Bible),  and  Canon  T.  L.  Scott's  Visions  of 
the  Apocalypse  (London  :  Skeffington&Son),as  specially  helpful  to  literary  students. 


THE    WORKS   OF   THE  PROPHETS  473 

description  of  one  coming  with  the  clouds,  of  hair  white  as  wool, 
a  golden  girdle,  feet  like  burnished  brass,  eyes  of  fire,  is  entirely 
from  Daniel ;  from  Ezekiel  come  the  rainbow  round  about  the 
throne  and  the  four  living  creatures.  The  naming  of  Him  who 
is  worthy  to  open  the  book  as  the  '  Root  of  David '  brings  up 
the  '  Branch '  and  '  Shoot '  which  have  figured  in  the  Messianic 
pictures  of  Isaiah ;  and  the  other  appellative,  '  the  Lion  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,'  takes  us  back  to  Primitive  Prophecy  and  the 
Blessings  of  Jacob  on  the  tribes.  It  is  the  same  with  the  symbols 
that  make  up  the  succession  of  scenes.  The  book  written  within 
and  without,  the  little  book  to  be  eaten  and  found  sweet  in  the 
mouth  and  bitter  in  the  belly,  have  both  become  familiar  from 
the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel ;  the  golden  candlestick  of  Zechariah's 
vision  is  multiplied  sevenfold  for  this  supreme  revelation,  and  its 
appendage  of  the  two  olive  trees  now  becomes  the  centre  of  a 
separate  chapter  of  allegory ;  the  incense  symbolising  the  prayers 

of  the  saints  realises  the  imagery  of  the  psalms ;  if 

....  '    ,    Psalm  cxli.  a 

again  the  delivered  psalmist   has  cried   that  God 

has  put  a  '  new  song '  in  his  mouth,  the  thought  finds  here  a  real- 
isation in  the  mystic  new  song  which  none  but  the  sealed  of  the 
Lord  can  learn.  The  prophetic  conceptions  undergo  alteration 
and  enlargement  as  they  reappear.  Zechariah's  vision  had  pre- 
sented spirits  of  ministration  on  the  earth  in  the  form  of  horses, 
white,  red,  black,  grisled,  —  the  colours  being  a  picturesque 
detail :  but  the  horses  of  Revelation  —  the  white,  the  red,  the 
black,  the  pale  —  have  each  a  hue  mystically  connected  with  its 
office  of  judgment.  Prophecy  had  frequently  couched  its  mys- 
teries under  the  image  of  a  book  sealed  up :  this  consummation 
of  all  things  presents  the  unsealing.  Among  the  instruments  of 
woe  the  trumpets  represent  the  trumpet  sound  which  in  the  rhap- 
sodies had  marked  the  commencement  of  panic,  the  bowls  poured 
out  repeat  the  regular  image  of  the  Doom  Songs,  —  the  cup  of 
Jehovah's  fury.  The  woes  thus  hurled  upon  the  world  are  the 
'  plagues '  of  Egypt  magnified  :  when  locusts  are  mentioned,  the 
mystic  imagery  of  Joel  is  worked  into  the  description ;  when  hail 


474  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE   OF  PROPHECY 

is  pictured,  the  expression  "  every  stone  about  the  weight  of  a 
talent "  reads  like  a  momentary  finger-pointing  to  Zechariah's  vis- 
ion of  Wickedness  pressed  down  with  the  talent  of  lead.  Where 
the  form  of  woes  goes  outside  the  Egyptian  plagues  prophecy  has 
other  symbols  to  contribute,  and  the  '  burning  mountain '  recalls 
Jeremiah's  Doom  of  Babylon,  as  the  star  Wormwood  the  Doom  of 
Babylon  in  Isaiah.  Again,  the  recital  of  the  number  of  the  saved, 
tribe  by  tribe,  recalls  in  its  rhythm  a  similar  recital  of  the  portions 
of  the  tribes  of  Ezekiel.  Of  course  a  new  chord  has  been  struck 
in  the  vision  that  immediately  follows :  the  "  great  multitude, 
which  no  man  could  number,  out  of  every  nation,  and  of  all  tribes 
and  peoples  and  tongues,  standing  before  the  throne."  But  as  the 
description  is  continued  hallowed  associations  from  old  prophecy 
come  in.  That  they  have  "  washed  their  robes  and  made  them 
white  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb,"  combines  Isaiah's  promise  that 
sins  red  as  crimson  should  be  as  wool  with  Zechariah's  vision  of 
the  filthy  garments  taken  in  the  heavenly  court  from  Joshua  that 
he  might  be  clothed  in  rich  vestments ;  while  the  sweetly  sounding 
promise  — 

They  shall  hunger  no  more,  neither  thirst  any  more,  neither  shall  the 
sun  strike  upon  them,  nor  any  heat,  for  the  Lamb  which  is  in  the 
midst  of  the  throne  shall  be  their  shepherd,  and  shall  guide  them 
unto  fountains  of  waters  of  life  — 

has  been  spoken  before  by  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  in  the  Isaiahan 
Rhapsody.  Sometimes  St.  John's  symbols  or  descriptive  touches 
would  fail  to  produce  their  effect  if  separated  from  the  associa- 
tions they  recall.  It  would  seem  harsh  in  so  mystic  a  scene  to 
speak  of  exact  numbers :  but  the  phrase  of  the  old  processional 

psalm  — 

The  chariots  of  God  are  twenty  thousand, 
Even  thousands  upon  thousands  — 

renders  it  possible  for  Revelation  to  make  the  armies  of  the  horse- 
men "  twice  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand."  Again  we  might 
see  no  point  in  the  symbol  of  the  balance  held  by  the  rider  on  the 


THE    WORKS   OF  THE  PROPHETS  475 

black  horse,  were  it  not  that  Ezekiel's  mimic  siege  has  accustomed 
us  to  associate  famine  with  eating  bread  by  weight  and  drinking 
water  by  measure.  And  when  we  reach  the  tumult  of  winds  and 
sea  and  the  beasts  coming  up  out  of  the  sea,  the  vision  becomes 
pointless  unless  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  are  assumed  throughout. 
It  will  be  understood  that  the  use  in  Revelation  of  the  Old 
Testament  prophecy  is  no  borrowing  or  travelling  backward ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  conceptions  of  the  prophets  become  intensified 
by  being  massed  together,  and  ideas  from  diverse  sources  unite  in 
a  single  new  conception.  The  horror  of  nature  that  attends  the 
opening  of  the  sixth  seal  is  given  in  a  single  description.  Its  first 
clause,  as  to  the  sun  becoming  black  as  sackcloth  and  the  moon  as 
blood,  gives  a  phenomenon  of  change  three  times  used  by  Joel. 
Then  the  stars  falling  from  heaven,  "  as  a  shaken  fig  tree  casts 
her  unripe  figs,"  unites  Isaiah's  expression  of  stars  falling  "  as  a 
fading  leaf  from  the  fig  tree  "  with  Nahum's  application  of  the 
image  of  a  shaken  fig  tree  to  the  succession  of  fortresses  yielded 
in  a  panic.  Then  the  detail  of  the  heavens  being  rolled  up  as  a 
scroll  recalls  Isaiah's  ideal  ruin  of  Edom ;  that  of  the  mountains 
and  islands  moving  and  fleeing  has  been  a  stock  prophetic  image ; 
the  idea  of  men's  hiding  in  the  caves  and  rocks  has  been  used  in 
Isaiah's  opening  manifesto,  their  crying  to  the  rocks  and  moun- 
tains to  fall  on  them  and  cover  them  has  been  pictured  by  Hosea. 
The  final  climax  of  the  description  —  that  the  great  day  of  wrath 
is  come,  and  who  is  able  to  abide  it?  —  borrows  the  refrain  of 
Joel's  rhapsody.  Or  again :  when  the  angel  casts  his  sickle  to 
the  earth,  we  at  once  recognise  the  consummation  foreshadowed 
by  Joel ;  but  when  the  vintage  so  gathered  is  cast  into  the  wine- 
press of  the  wrath  of  God,  the  association  is  with  the  vision  ot 
judgment  in  the  Isaiahan  Rhapsody;  when  again  blood  comes 
out  of  the  winepress  and  reaches  even  to  the  bridles  of  the 
horses,  the  image  of  that  rhapsody  has  become  united  with  an 
early  picture  of  Isaiah,  which  represented  the  Assyrian  flood 
deluging  the  land  and  reaching  to  the  horses'  necks.  The  song 
over  Fallen  Babylon  recalls  many  such  songs  of  old  prophecy; 


476  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE  OF  PROPHECY 

but  before  it  has  gone  far  the  details  have  entirely  changed,  and 
identified  the  fallen  power  also  with  Tyre  whose  ruin  is  wept  over 
by  the  merchant  and  the  shipman :  the  suggestion  is  that  all  the 
bulwarks  of  evil  are  included  in  the  Babylon  of  Revelation.  To 
take  a  final  example.  The  New  Jerusalem  seen  with  the  measured 
symmetries  of  its  walls  and  gates  is  the  Jerusalem  of  Ezekiel.  Its 
coming  down  as  a  bride  adorned  for  her  husband  is  the  thought 
of  one  of  the  songs  to  Zion  Exalted  in  the  rhapsody  of  Isaiah ; 
from  another  of  these  songs  come  the  foundations  of  precious 
stones  and  pearly  gates  ;  yet  another  has  foreshadowed  the  gates 
open  day  and  night,  the  Divine  Sun  in  the  glory  of  which  nations 
walk.  And  the  additional  picture  of  the  river  of  water  of  life  — 
with  the  trees  of  life,  yielding  their  monthly  fruits,  and  leaves  for 
the  healing  of  the  nations  —  has  brought  us  back  to  the  visions 
of  Ezekiel. 

Even  as  a  literary  effect  this  building  up  of  new  conceptions  out 
of  details  that  come  to  us  hallowed  with  the  associations  of  past 
literature  is  eminently  impressive.  It  is  another  form  of  that 
which  in  secular  literature  is  the  chain  of  '  classic '  succession,  by 
which  Miltonic  poetry  will  in  its  every  detail  echo  some  classic 
image  or  expression  of  Italian  and  Roman  literature,  as  these  in 
their  turn  had  made  their  details  suggest  their  origin  in  the  classic 
poetry  of  Greece.  The  emblematic  ideas  of  prophecy,  however, 
go  far  beyond  literary  imagery ;  and,  whether  we  consider  matter 
or  form,  it  is  highly  significant  that  the  final  outpouring  of  Scrip- 
tural Prophecy  should  be  a  Procession  of  symbolic  visions  in 
which  the  visionary  symbols  of  all  preceding  prophecy  have  grown 
together  into  their  consummation. 


APPENDICES 


PAGE 

I.  LITERARY  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE 479 

II.  TABLES  OF  LITERARY  FORMS 513 

III.  A  METRICAL  SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL  VERSE      .        .        .  526 

IV.  A  REFERENCE  TABLE 557 

GENERAL  INDEX 561 


APPENDIX   I 

LITERARY  INDEX  TO   THE  BIBLE 

In  this  first  Appendix  the  whole  Bible,  and  the  more  important  parts 
of  the  Apocrypha,  are  divided  up  into  the  separate  literary  compositions  of 
•which  they  are  composed.  The  form  of  each  composition  is  indicated,  and, 
in  cases  that  admit  of  it,  a  suitable  title  is  suggested.  The  arrangement 
follows  the  order  in  which  the  books  of  the  Bible  stand ;  the  Appendix  will 
therefore  serve  as  a  guide  to  Bible  reading  where  it  is  desired  to  read  from 
the  literary  point  of  view. 

Reference  figures  (in  brackets)  are  added  to  previous  pages  in  which 
particular  compositions  have  been  discussed.  The  Appendix  will  therefore 
serve  also  as  an  Index  to  the  present  work. 

It  is  suggested  to  the  student  to  mark  with  pencil  in  his  copy  of  the 
Revised  Version  the  divisions  and  titles  here  suggested,  or  to  make  divisions 
and  titles  of  his  own.  It  is  an  immense  help  to  literary  appreciation  to 
have  the  form  of  a  piece  of  literature  conveyed  directly  to  the  eye  (as  is 
done  by  the  printer  in  all  books  except  the  Bible),  instead  of  having  to 
collect  the  form  by  inference  while  reading. 


479 


480  LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 

GENESIS 
History  Part  I:  Formation  of  the  Chosen  Nation.  —  Primitive  History 

Deals  with  the  period  preceding  the  appearance  of  the  Chosen  People  as 
a  Nation.     An  Historic  Framework  enclosing  Epic  Incidents  (250) . 


i-xi 
xii-1 


First  Beginnings  of  the  World 
The  Patriarchal  Succession 


Merged  in  this  History,  yet  separable  for  literary  purposes,  are  various 
forms  of  Epic.1 

EPIC  STORIES 
The  Creadon 


t-n.  3 
it.  4~iii 
ra.  1-15 
vi.  y-ix.  17 


The  Temptation  in  the  Garden  of  Eden 
Cain  and  Abel 
The  Flood 


EPIC  CYCLES 

OF  ABRAHAM. —  Call  of  Abraham  (xii.  1-9) —  Sarai  and  Pharaoh 
(xii.  10-20)  —  The  Parting  of  Abraham  and  Lot,  and  the  Raid  on  Sodom 
(xiii—xiv)  —  Sarai,  Hagar,  and  the  Promised  Seed  (xv-xvii)  —  The  Judg- 
ment on  Sodom  (xviii-xix.  28)  —  Abimelech  and  Sarah  (xx)  —  Birth  of  Isaac 
and  casting  off  of  Ishmael  (xxi.  i—2i~)  —  Offering  of  Isaac  (xxii.  i—io,~) — 
Burial  of  Sarah  (xxiii)  —  Wooing  of  Rebekah  (xxiv) 

OF  ISAAC-  —  Birth  of  Isaac  and  casting  off  of  Ishmael  (xxi.  1-21}  — 
Offering  of  Isaac  (xxii.  1-19)  —  Burial  of  Sarah  (xxiii)  —  Wooing  of 
Rebekah  (xxiv) 

OF  JACOB. —  Guileful  obtaining  of  Isaac's  blessing  (xxvii.  1-40)  — 
Flight  of  Jacob  (xxvii.  4i-xxviii)  —  How  Jacob  served  under  Laban  (xxix- 
xxxii.  2)  — Meeting  of  Jacob  and  Esau  (xxxii.  j-xxxiii)  — Blessing  and 
Death  of  Jacob  (xlvii.  28-1) 

EPIC  HISTORY 
x xxvii.  2-36 


continued 
xxxix.  i—xlvi. 
7  and ' xlvi.  28— 
xlvii.  12 


Joseph  and  his  Brethren  (228) 


1  The  reader  is  warned  against  the  common  mistake  of  confusing  Epic  with 
Fiction.     (Above,  page  227.) 


EXODUS  — DEUTERONOMY 


481 


EXODUS,   LEVITICUS,   NUMBERS 

History  Part  II:  Migration  of  the  Chosen  Nation  to  the  Land  of 
Promise.  —  Constitutional  History 

Deals  with  the  Chosen  Nation  up  to  their  arrival  at  the  Land  of  Promise. 
Successive  Revelations  of  Law,  and  Incidents  associated  with  these  (251). 


Exodus  and 

Leviticus  and 

Numbers 

i-ix.  14 
Numbers  from 

ix.  15 


Deliverance  from  Egypt  and  Migration  to  Sinai 


The  Thirty-eight  Years'  Wandering  in  the  Wilderness 


Merged  in  this  History,  but  separable  for  literary  purposes,  are  various 
forms  of  Epic. 

EPIC  HISTORY 
Exodus  i.  8-vi.  1 

continued 

•vi.  28-xi  and        Moses  and  the  Plagues  of  Egypt 

xii.  21-39  an<i 

xiii.  ij-xv.  21 

MIXED  EPIC 

Numb,  xxii-xxiv  \     The  Story  of  Balaam  {230  and  382  note) 
DEUTERONOMY 


The  Orations  and  Songs  of  Moses 

An  Historic  Framework  enclosing  the  Farewell  Orations  and  Songs  of 
Moses.  (Fully  analysed  above,  Chapter  XII.)  Portions  described  in  italics 
may  be  omitted  in  the  exercise  of  taking  in  Deuteronomy  at  a  single  sitting.1 

i.  1-2  Title  page  to  the  whole  book 

3~5  Preface  to  the  First  Oration 

i.  6-iv.  40  First  Oration :  Moses'  Announcement  of  his  Deposition 

l  Several  passages  (i.  2;  ii.  10-12;  ii.  20-3;  iii.  9,  u,  14;  x.  6-9)  should  be 
marked  off  from  the  orations  as  '  explanatory  footnotes." 


482 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


44-9 
v.  i-xi.  32 

xii-xxvi 
xxvii.  1-8 

9-26 


XXIX.  I 

xxix.  2-xxxi.  8 
xxxi. 


xxxi.  14-30 
xxxii.  1—43 
xxxii.  44-7 

xxxii.  48-xxxiii.  I  ' 
xxxiii.  2-29 


Editorial  Note  connecting  the  first  and  second  Orations 
Preface  to  the  Second  Oration 

Second  Oration :  The  Delivery  of  the  Covenant  to  the 
Levites  and  Elders 

The  Book  of  the  Covenant  • 

Ordinance  appointing  the  Ceremony  of  the  Blessing  and 

the  Curse 

Rehearsal  of  the  Ceremony  (see  page  276)  interrupted  by 
Third  Oration :  At  the  Rehearsal  of  the  Blessing  and  the 

Curse 

Preface  to  the  Fourth  Oration 

Fourth  Oration :  The  Covenant  in  the  Land  of  Moab 
Editorial  Note  :  Arrangements  for  the  regular  reading 
of  the  Covenant 

Preface  to  the  Song  of  Moses 

The  Song  of  Moses :  Jehovah  our  Rock 

Colophon  to  the  Song  of  Moses 

Preface  to  the  Last  Words  of  Moses 

The  Last  Words  of  Moses  [2-3  and  26-9  General; 
4-25  Blessings  on  particular  tribes,  a  Document  in- 
corporated, of  which  4-5  is  the  title] 

Editorial  Conclusion :  The  Passing  of  Moses 


JOSHUA,  JUDGES,  RUTH,  I  SAMUEL 

History  Part  III:    The  Chosen  Nation  in  its  Efforts  towards  Secular 
Government.  —  Incidental  History 

Deals  with  the  Conquest  of  the  Promised  Land  and  Tentative  Approach  to 
Secular  Government.    Epic  matter  with  connecting  Historic  Framework  (252). 


Joshua 
Judges 
I  Samuel 


Conquest  of  Canaan,  including  [xiii-xxii]  Division  of  the 

Land 
Sporadic    attempts    at    secular    government:    including 

[viii.  22  and  ix]  first  idea  of  secular  kingship 
Gradual  establishment  of  secular  kingship  and  rise  of 

Prophets  to  represent  the  Theocracy 


JOSHUA  — I  SAMUEL  483 

The  main  interest  in  this  group  of  books  is  the  Epic  element,  to  which  the 
rest  serves  as  connecting  matter. 


Judges  Hi.  12-30 
iv-v 

vi-viii,  28 
viii.  2<)-ix 
x.  6-xii.  6 
xvii-xviii 
xix—xxi 


EPIC  STORIES 

Ehud"1*  Assassination  of  Eglon 

War  of  Deborah  and  Barak  against  Sisera 

Gideon  and  the  Midianites 

Crowning  of  Abimelech  by  the  Men  of  Shechem 

Jephthah  and  the  Ammonites 

Micatts  Images  and  the  Danish  Migration 

The  Benjamite  War 


EPIC  CYCLES 

OF  JOSHUA. —  The  Spies  and  the  Woman  of  Jericho  (it) — The  Pas- 
sage of  the  Jordan  (iii-iv) —  The  Siege  of  Jericho  (v.  13— vt)  —  Siege  ofAi  and 
Sin  of  Achan  (vii-viii.  .29)  — Embassy  of  the  Gibeonites  (ix)  — League  of  the 
Five  Kings  (x.  i-2"f)  —  Joshua's  Farewell  (xxiii-xxiv) 

OF  SAMSON.  —  Birth  of  Samson  (Judges  xiii.  2-25)  —  Samson  and  the 
Woman  of  Timnah  (xiv-xv.  8)  —  The  Jawbone  of  an  Ass  (xv.  9-20}  — 
The  Gates  of  Gaza  (xvi.  1-3)  —  Samson  and  Delilah  (xvi.  4-22)  —  Death 
of  Samson  (xvi.  23-31) 

OF  SAMUEL.  —  Birth  of  Samuel  (7  Sam.  i-ii.  //)  —  Call  of  Samuel 
and  Dooming  of  Eli  (ii.  12-iv)  —  The  Ark  and  the  Philistines  (v-vii.  /)  — 
The  Anointing  of  Saul  and  the  Retirement  of  Samuel  (yiii-xii) —  The  Anoint- 
ing of  David  (xvi.  1-13) —  The  Witch  of  Endor  (xxviii.  3-25) 

OF  SA  UL.  —  The  Anointing  of  Saul  and  the  Retirement  of  Samuel 
(7  Sam.  viii-xii)  —  The  Raid  on  Michmash  (xiii.  i$-xiv.  46)  —  War  with 
the  Amalekites  and  Breach  between  Samuel  and  Saul  (xv)  —  The  Witch  of 
Endor  (xxviii.  3—25) 


EPIC  HISTORIES 


Ruth 

I  Samuel  xvi.  14. 
to  xxviii.  2  con- 
tinued xxix  to 
II  Samuel  i 


The  Story  of  Ruth  :  An  Idyl  (241-4) 
The  Feud  of  Saul  and  David 


484 


LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE  BIBLE 


II  SAMUEL,  I  AND  II  KINGS 

History  Part  IV :  The  Chosen  Nation  under  a  Secular  Government  and 
a  Theocracy  side  by  side.  —  Regular  History 

Deals  with  the  period  from  the  Settlement  of  the  Monarchy  to  the  Captiv- 
ity.    Systematic  account  of  successive  reigns  (254). 


II  Samuel  ii  to 

I  Kings  xi 

I  Kings  xii  to 

II  Kings  xvii 

II  Kings 
from  xviii 


Reigns  of  David  and  Solomon 

Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  side  by  side 

Kingdom  of  Judah  and  its  Captivity 


Merged  in  this  History,  yet  separable  for  literary  purposes,  are  various 
forms  of  Epic,  especially  Epic  Prophecy. 


EPIC  HISTORY 

The  Feud  between  David's   Sons  and  the  Revolt  of 
Absalom 

PROPHETIC  STORIES 
Nathan,  David,  and  Bathsheba 

Gad  and  the  Numbering  of  the  People 

The  Man  of  God  and  the  Old  Prophet  of  Bethel 

Ahijah  and  the  Wife  of  Jeroboam 

Benhadad,  Ahab  and  the  Prophets 

Micaiah  and  the  Battle  of  Ramotk-gilead 

PROPHETIC  CYCLE 

OF  ELISHA.  — Elisha'' s  Parting  from  Elijah  (77  Kings  ii.  /-/<?)  — 
The  Healing  of  the  Waters  (ii.  19-22)  —  The  Mocking  Children  (ii.  23-5") 
—  The  Water  Trenches  (Hi.  4-27)  —  The  Vessels  of  Oil  (iv.  1-7)  —  The 
Shunammite  Woman  (iv.  8-37)  — Death  in  the  Pot  (iv.  38-41)  —  The  Feed- 
ing of  the  Hundred  Men  (iv.  42-4)  —  The  Healing  of  Naaman  and  Leprosy  of 
Gehazi  (v)  —  The  Axe-head  that  swam  (vi.  1-7)  —  The  Expedition  to  arrest 
Elisha  (vi.  8-23)  —  The  Siege  of  Samaria  (vi.  24~vii.  26)  —  The  Shunam- 
mite Woman's  Estate  (viii.  1-6)  —  Hazael  's  Visit  to  Elisha  (viii.  7-15)  — 
Death  of  Elisha  (xiii.  14-21) 


II  Sam.  xiii-xx 


II  Samuel  xi.  2 

to  xii.  25 

xxiv 
I  Kings  xiii.  1-32 

xiv.  I-J& 

XX 

xxii.  1-38 


CHR  ONICLES — JOB 


485 


I  Kings  xvii-xix 
continued  xxi 
and  II  Kings 
i-ii.  18 


PROPHETIC  EPIC 


The  History  of  Elijah  the  Tishbite 


CHRONICLES,   EZRA,   NEHEMIAH 

History  Part  V :  The  Chosen  Nation  as  a  Church.  —  Ecclesiastical 

History 

A  compilation  of  Historical  Excerpts,  Memoirs,  Documents,  etc.,  all  bear- 
ing upon  the  Ecclesiastical  Organisation  of  the  Nation  as  restored  after  the 
Exile  (254). 

I  Chr.  i-ix.  34  Genealogy  of  the  Families  of  Israel  before  and  after  the 

Captivity 
The  Kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon 


I  Chr.  from  ix. 

35-11  Chr.  ix 

II  Chr.  from  x 
Ezra  i-vi 

Ezra  vii-x 
Neh.  i-vii.  73  (a) 
Neh.  vii.  73  (<5)-x 
Neh.  xi-xii.  26 
Neh.  from  xii.  27 


The  Kingdom  of  Judah  to  the  Captivity 

The  Return  under  Zerubbabel  and  the  Building  of  the 

Temple 

The  Return  of  Ezra 

The  Return  of  Nehemiah  and  the  Building  of  the  Walls 
The  Covenant  under  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
Statistics  of  the  Return 
Divers  Acts  of  Nehemiah 


ESTHER 
An  Epic  History  (236) 


111 

iv-xiv 

xv-xxi 


JOB 

A  Dramatic  Parable  in  a  Frame  of  Epic  Story 
Fully  analysed  in  the  Introduction,  above,  pages  3-41 

The  Story  Opens 

The  Dramatic  Parable 
Act     I :  Job's  Curse  (547) 
Act    II :  First  Cycle  of  Speeches 
Act  III :  Second  Cycle  of  Speeches 


486  LITERARY  INDEX    TO    THE  BIBLE 


xxn-xxx 
xxxi 

xxxii-xxxvii 
xxxviii-xlii.  6 

xlii  from  7 


Act    IV :  Third  Cycle  of  Speeches a 
Act     V:  Job's  Vindication  (554) 
Act    VI :   Interposition  of  Elihu  (552-4) 
Act  VII :  The  Divine  Intervention 

The  Story  Closes 


i  In  the  third  cycle  the  speeches  need  re-arrangement,  by  the  transference  of 
three  verses  (2-4  of  Chapter  xxvi)  to  the  commencement  of  the  next  chapter,  and 
the  consequent  alterations  of  headings  to  speeches. 

Then  answered  Eliphaz  the  Temanite,  and  said  — 
Chapter  xxii 

Then  Job  answered  and  said — 
Chapters  xxiii,  xxlv 

Then  answered  Bildad  the  Shuhite,  and  said — 
Chapter  xxv,  continued  in  xxvi.  5-14 

Then  Job  answered  and  said — 

Chapter  xxvi.  2-4,  continued  in  xxvii.  2-6 

Then  answered  Zophar  the  Naamathite,  and  said — 
Chapter  xxvii.  7  to  end  of  Chapter  xxviii 

Then  Job  answered  and  said — 
Chapters  xxix,  xxx 

This  conjectural  re-arrangement  of  the  speeches  is  based  on  the  following  con- 
sideration : 

1.  The  utmost  caution  should  be  exercised  in  accepting  conjectural  emenda- 
tions affecting  the  sense  of  a  passage ;  but  the  same  principle  does  not  apply  to 
changes  in  the  arrangement  of  speeches,  especially  as  the  sacred  books  have 
passed  through  centuries  in  which  the  principles  of  parallelism  were  lost. 

2.  All  critics  recognise  the  difficulty  of  the  text  as  it  stands  between  Chapters 
xxvi  and  xxviii  (inclusive),  which  has  the  effect  of  making  Job  take  up  a  position 
antagonistic  to  his  former  contention  and  to  his  subsequent  words  :  and  some  com- 
mentators resort  to  violent  explanations,  such  as  prolonged  irony,  etc. 

3.  The  most  marked  feature  of  literary  style  in  the  book  is  its  extreme  parallel- 
ism ;  this  makes  it  most  improbable  that  the  third  colloquy  should  be  imperfect, 
by  the  omission  of  a  speech  from  Zophar,  and  a  reply  to  him  from  Job.     Moreover 
the  change  in  the  introductory  formulae  when  Chapters  xxvii  and  xxix  are  reached 
—  viz.  And  Job  again  took  up  his  parable  and  said  instead  of  the  usual   Job 
answered  and  said — is  very  suspicious. 

4.  The  conjecture  here  adopted  is  substantially  that  of  Gra"tz,  which  is  to  a 
large  extent  the  same  as  Cheyne's.    Some  eminent  critics  (e.g.  Davidson,  Driver) 
are  deterred  from  seeking  a  third  speech  for  Zophar  by  the  shortness  of  Bildad's 
third  speech  (xxv),  which  they  take  as  an  indication  that  the  controversy  is  becom- 
ing exhausted.    But  the  present  conjecture  lengthens  Bildad's  speech  and  removes 
this  objection. 


PSALMS 


487 


ii 

iii 

iv 

v 

vi 

vii 

viii 

ix-x 

xi 

xii 

xiii 

xiv=liii 

xv=xxiv.  1-6 

xvi 

xvii 

xviii 

xix 

xx-xxi 

xxii 

xxiii 

xxiv 

xxv 

xxvi 

xxvii 

xxviii 

xxix 

xxx 

xxxj 

xxxii 


THE  PSALMS 

A  Collection  of  Lyrics  in  Five  Books 

Compare  above,  Chapters  V-VII  generally 

Book  I 

Prefatory  :   The  Tree  and  the  Chaff  (779) 

Song  of  the  LORD'S  Anointed  (161) 

The  Drama  of  Night  and  Morning  (190) 

An  Evening  Prayer  (181) 

A  Morning  Prayer  (181) 

Dramatic:  An  Answer  to  Prayer  (188) 

A  Vision  of  Judgment 

Man  the  Viceroy  of  God  (66) 

An  Acrostic  Anthem  of  Judgment  (193  note) 

A  Song  of  Trust  (549) 

Dramatic:    The  Words  of  the   LORD  and  the  Lip  of 

Vanity 

Counsels  of  Sorrow 

Vision:  Judgment  of  a  Corrupt  World  (194,  533) 
The  Consecrated  Life  (57,  105) 
A  Song  of  Personal  Consecration  (164) 
A  Prayer  for  the  Vindication  of  the  Righteous  (182) 
A  Song  of  Victory  (86) 

The  Heavens  above  and  the  Law  within  (95-102) 
A  War  Anthem  (53,  197) 
Dramatic:  Salvation  in  Extremity  (184,  189) 
Under  the  Protection  of  Jehovah  (58,  172) 
Anthems  for  the  Inauguration  of  Jerusalem  (104,  1 60) 
An  Acrostic  Liturgy 

Searchings  of  Heart  before  Worship  (543) 
A  Dramatic  Anthem  of  Deliverance  (171,  191) 
Dramatic :  Help  for  the  Trusting  Heart 
Song  of  the  Thunderstorm  (163) 
Anthem  for  the  Inauguration  of  Jerusalem  (51,  160) 
Dramatic:  A  Twice-told  Deliverance  (193  note). 
Blessedness  of  the  Forgiven  Soul  (181) 


488 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


XXXlll 

xxxiv 

xxxv 

xxxvi 

xxxvii 

xxxviii 

xxxix 


xl  (including  Ixx) 
xli 


A  Festal  Hymn 

A  Festal  Anthem 

A  Litany  of  Judgment  (183) 

Evil  Unbounded  and  Infinite  Good  (lOl) 

The  Prosperity  of  the  Wicked  (170). — Acrostic 

Corruption  Within  and  Foes  Without 

A  Struggle  with  Despair 

A  Liturgy  (549) 

Integrity  Succoured  in  the  Day  of  Evil  (181) 


xlii-xliii 
xliv 
xlv 
xlvi 

xlvii 

xlviii 

xlix 

1 

li 

Hi 

liii 

liv 

Iv 

Ivi 

Ivii 

Iviii 

lix 

Ix  (with  cviii) 

Ixi 

Ixii 

Ixiii 

Ixiv 

Izv 

Ixvi 

Ixvii 

kviii 

Ixix 


Book  II 

Exiled  from  the  House  of  God.  —  With  refrain  (60) 

An  Elegy :  Our  Fathers'  Days  and  Ours  (550) 

A  Royal  Marriage  Hymn 

Occasional:  Deliverance  from  Sennacherib  (158,  59).— 

With  refrain 
A  Festal  Hymn 

Occasional:  Victory  over  Sennacherib  (159) 
Man  that  is  in  Honour :  A  Parable  (171). — With  refrain 
A  Vision  of  Judgment  (195,  538-40) 
Prayer  of  a  Sin-stricken  Conscience  (182,  195  note) 
The  Mighty  Man  of  Mischief  (164) 
See  xiv 

Dramatic :  God  mine  Helper 
Litany  of  the  Oppressed. 
A  Dramatic  Monologue.  —  With  refrain 
A  Dramatic  Monologue  (190).  —  With  refrain 
A  Song  of  Judgment  (174  note,  527) 
A  War  Ballad  (196).  — With  refrain 
War  Anthems :  Hymn  of  Defeat  and  Victory  (197  note) 
A  Royal  Prayer 

A  Song  of  Trust  —  With  refrain 
God  of  My  Life 

The  Secret  Counsel  of  the  Wicked 
A  Liturgy  (199) 
A  Votive  Hymn 

A  Festal  Response  (197-8).  —  With  refrain 
Processional  Ode  (152) 
A  Dramatic  Monologue 


PSALMS 


489 


bcx  (see  xl) 

Ixxi 

Ixxii 


Litany  of  the  Poor  and  Needy 

A  Dramatic  Monologue 

A  Dynasty  of  Righteousness  (161) 


Ixxiii 

Ixxiv 

Ixxv 

Ixxvi 

Ixxvii 

Ixxviii 

Ixxix 

Ixxx 

Ixxxi 

Ixxxii 

Ixxxiii 

Ixxxiv 

Ixxxv 

Ixxxvi 

Ixxxvii 

Ixxxviii 

Ixxxix 


Book  III 

The  Mystery  of  Prosperous  Wickedness  (171) 

Elegy  of  the  Ruined  Sanctuary  (169) 

A  Song  of  Judgment 

Occasional:  Deliverance  from  Sennacherib  (158) 

The  Right  Hand  of  the  Most  High  changeth  not  (186) 

National  Anthem:  Of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah  (145,  149) 

Jerusalem  in  Heaps :  An  Elegy 

The  Broken  Vine :  An  Elegy  (169).  —  With  refrain 

A  Festal  Hymn  and  Testimony 

God  in  Judgment  on  the  gods  (174) 

Judgment  on  the  Foes  of  Israel 

A  Song  of  God's  House  (178,  548) 

Dramatic  Anthem  of  the  Captivity  Brought  Back  (193) 

A  Liturgy 

Zion  Mother  of  Nations  (162) 

An  Elegy 

Ode:  On  the  Covenant  (150) 


XCH 

xciii 

xciv 

xcv-c 

ci 

cii 

/  ciii 
I  civ 


Book  IV 

Thoughts  ( 1 70)  from  the  Song  of  Moses  [xc :  The  Eternal 
God  is  Thy  Dwelling  Place  (174-7) — xci:  Under- 
neath are  the  Everlasting  Arms] 

Votive  Hymn 

Jehovah's  Immovable  Throne  (162) 

LORD,  How  Long? 

A  Festal  Anthem.  —  (For  xcix  see  page  546) 

Anthem  for  the  Inauguration  of  Jerusalem  (160) 

The  Declining  Life  and  the  Abiding  Lord 

The  World  Within  and 

The  World  Without  (156-7,  535-8) 

National  Anthem :  Of  the  Undivided  Nation  in  Canaan 
(148-9) 

National  Anthem:  For  the  Captivity  (148-9) 


490 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


evil 

cviii  (with  be) 

cix 

ex 

cxi-cxii 

cxiii-cxviii 


CX1X 

cxx-cxxxiv 

cxx 

cxxi 

cxxii 

cxxiii 

cxxiv 

cxxv 

cxxvi 

cxxvii 

cxxviii 

cxxix 

cxxx 

cxxxi 

cxxxii 

cxxxiii 
j.  cxxxiv 
cxxxv 
cxxxvi 

cxxxvii 

cxxxviii 

cxxxix 

cxl 

cxli 

cxlii 

cxliii 

cxliv 

cxlv 

cxlvi-cl 


Book    V 

Ode:  Of  the  Redeemed  (61,  154). — With  double  refrain 

War  Anthems :  Hymn  of  Defeat  and  Victory  (197  note) 

A  Curse  on  Him  that  Curseth  (183) 

King  and  Priest  (161,  540-1) 

Acrostic  Preface  to  the  following  Hallelujah 

The  Hallel :  a  series  of  Hallelujah  Psalms  sung  as  one 

at  the  great  feasts.  —  (For  cxiv  see  page  55,  and  for 

cxvi  and  cxviii  pages  201,  202) 

The  Law  of  the  LORD  :  An  Acrostic  Meditation  ( 1 70) 
The  Songs  of  Ascents  or  Hymn-Book  of  the  Pilgrims 

(165-7) 

The  Exile's  Cry  (165) 
The  Lord  thy  Keeper  (166,  50) 
Salutation  to  Jerusalem  (166) 
A  Prayer  of  the  Despised  (165) 
The  Exile's  Song  of  Deliverance  (165) 
Thoughts  on  Mount  Zion  (166) 
Seedtime  and  Harvest:  A  Song  of  Deliverance  (166) 
Toil  and  Home :  A  Family  Song  (167,  101) 
Home  Life :  A  Family  Song  (167) 
Litany  of  Afflicted  Israel  (166) 
A  Cry  out  of  the  Depths  (166) 
The  Quiet  Soul  (167) 
Temple  Hymn  (167,  160) 
Song  of  Unity  (167) 

Temple  Song:  Benediction  of  the  Night  Watch  (167) 
A  Festal  Hallelujah 
National  Anthem:    Of  the  Nation   in  the  Wilderness 

(148-50) 

Babylon  and  Jerusalem:  An  Elegy  (169) 
A  Song  of  Thanksgiving  [189) 

Dramatic :  The  Searcher  of  Hearts  is  thy  Maker  (92-4, 
A  Cry  for  Deliverance  from  the  Wicked 
Consecration  to  the  Cause  of  the  Righteous 
Presence  of  God  in  Trouble 

A  Prayer  of  Distress  (187)  [refrain 

A  Dramatic  Anthem  of  Deliverance  (193  note).  —  With 
Acrostic  Preface  to  the  following 
Series  of  Hallelujah  Psalms  that  can  be  sung  as  one  (204-6) 


PROVERBS 


491 


i.   8-9 
10-19 
20-33 

ii 

iii.  i-io 
11-20 
21-6 

27-35 
iv.  1-9 
10-19 
20-7 

V 

vi.  1-5 
6-II 
12-19 

20-35 
vii-viii 
fa 


x-xxii.  16 


THE   PROVERBS 
A  Miscellany  of  Wisdom  in  Five  Books 

Above,  pages  319-23,  326,  359-60 

Title  to  the  whole  collection 
Motto  to  the  whole  collection 

Book  I 
Sonnets  on  Wisdom  (319-21') 


Epigram 

Sonnet :  The  Company  of  Sinners  (307) 

Monologue :  Wisdom's  Cry  of  Warning  (58,  554) 

Sonnet :  Wisdom  the  Deliverer  from  Evil 

Sonnet:  The  Commandment  and  the  Reward  (311) 

Sonnet :  The  Creator  has  made  Wisdom  the  Supreme  Prize 

Sonnet :  Wisdom  and  Security 

Sonnet :  Wisdom  and  Perversity 

Sonnet :  The  Tradition  of  Wisdom 

Sonnet :  The  Two  Paths  (52-3) 

Sonnet :  Wisdom  and  Health 

Sonnet :  The  Strange  Woman  (550-1) 

Sonnet :  Suretiship 

Sonnet:  The  Sluggard  (315) 

A  Pair  of  Sonnets :  The  Sower  of  Discord 

Sonnet :  Adultery  the  Supreme  Folly 

Monologue :  Wisdom  and  the  Strange  Woman  (316) 

Sonnet  of  Sonnets :  The  House  of  Wisdom  and  the 
House  of  Folly  [1-6  (Sonnet)  is  strophe  to  which 
13-18  is  antistrophe;  7-9  (Epigram)  is  strophe  to 
which  10-12  is  antistrophe] 

Book  II 

The  Proverbs  of  Solomon 
x-xxii.  ib 

Collection  of  isolated  Unit  Proverbs  :  no  appearance  oj 
arrangement  (J2/) 


492 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


xxii.  17-21 
22-9 

xxiii.  1—3 

4-5 
6-8 


19-21 

22-5 

26-8 
29-35 

xxiv.  i-io 

11-12 

»3-H 
15-22 

Postscript 

xxiv.  23-5 
^6-9 
3<>-4 


Book  III 

A  Wisdom  Epistle  (321) 
xxii.  if -xxiv 

Superscription  to  the  Epistle 

Disconnected  Sayings  [Short  Epigrams  and  Unit  ProV' 

erbs'} 

Epigram :  Awe  before  Appetite 
Epigram  :  Transitoriness  of  Riches 
Epigram :  Hospitality  of  the  Evil  Eye  (296) 
Disconnected  Sayings 
Epigram :  Gluttony 
Disconnected  Sayings 
Epigram :  The  Pit  of  Whoredom 
Sonnet:  Wine  and  Woe  (311-2) 
Disconnected  Sayings 
Epigram :  The  Duty  of  Rescue 
Epigram :  Wisdom  and  Honey  (296) 
Disconnected  Sayings 


Epigram :  Respect  of  Persons 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Sonnet:  The  Field  of  the  Slothful  (314) 


Book  IV 

Solomonic  Proverbs  collected  under  Hezekiah  (322) 


xxv.  i 

2-7 

xxv.  8-xxvi.  2 
xxvi.  3-1  a 

13-16 

17-26 

xxvi.  2f-xxvii.  22 
xxvii.  23-7 
xxviii-xxix 


xxv-xxtx 

Title  to  Book  IV 

Proverb  Cluster :  On  Kings 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Proverb  Cluster :  On  Fools 

Proverb  Cluster :  On  Sluggards 

Proverb  Cluster :  On  Social  Pests 

Disconnected  Sayings 

Folk  Song  of  Good  Husbandry  (322) 

Disconnected  Proverbs 


PRO  VERBS— ECCLESIASTES 


493 


xxxi.  1-9 

10-31 


Book  V 

Shorter  Collection  (322) 
xxx-xxxi 

Proverbs  of  Agur.  [xxx.  1-4  Sonnet :  The  Unsearchable- 
ness  of  God  (312).  5-6  Epigram.  7-9  Number 
Sonnet :  The  Golden  Mean.  10  Unit  Proverb.  1 1- 
14  Sonnet:  An  Evil  Generation.  15-16  Number 
Sonnet:  Things  never  satisfied  (309).  17  Epigram. 
18-19  Number  Sonnet :  Things  not  to  be  known. 
20  Epigram.  21-3  Number  Sonnet:  Things  not  to 
be  borne.  24-8  Number  Sonnet :  Little  and  Wise. 
29-31  Number  Sonnet  :  Things  stately  in  their 
going.  32-3  Epigram:  The  Restraining  of  Wrath] 

The  Oracle  of  Lemuel's  Mother  (296) 

Anonymous  Acrostic  Sonnet :  The  Virtuous  Woman 


ECCLESIASTES,  OR  THE  PREACHER 

A  Suite  of  Five  Essays,  broken  by  Miscellaneous  Sayings 

Fully  analysed,  pages  329-40.    Compare  also  344-6,  359-60 

i.  i  Title  to  the  -whole  [founded  upon  the  first  essay"] 

i.  2- 1 1  Prologue:  All  is  Vanity 

i.  i2-ii  Essay  I:    in  the  form  of  a  Dramatic  Monologue: 

Solomon's  Search  for  Wisdom 

iii.  i-iv.  8  Essay  II :  The  Philosophy  of  Times  and  Seasons 

iv.  g-v.  g.  Miscellaneous  Maxims  of  Life 

v.  lo-vi.  12  Essay  III :  The  Vanity  of  Desire 

vii,  1—22.  Miscellaneous  Paradoxes  of  Life 

vii.  23-ix.  1 6  Essay  IV:  The  Search  for  Wisdom,  with  Notes  by 

the  Way 

ix.  rj-xi.  6  Miscellaneous  Proverbs  of  Life 

xi.  7-xii.  7  Essay  V :  Life  as  a  Joy  shadowed  by  the  Judgment 

[including  Sonnet  (xii.  1-7)  :  The  Coming  of  the 

Evil  Days] 
xii.  8-14  Epilogue :  All  is  Vanity :  Fear  God 


494 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


THE  SONG  OF  SONGS 


A  Suite  of  Seven  Lyric  Idyls 
Fully  discussed  above,  Chapter  VIII :  compare  page  540 


i.  2-ii.  7 

Idyl       I  : 

The  Wedding-Day 

ii.  8-iii.  5 

Idyl     II  : 

The  Bride's  Reminiscences  of  the  Courtship 

iii.  6-v.  I 

Idyl  III: 

The  Day  of  Betrothal 

v.  2-vi.  3 

Idyl    IV: 

The  Bride's  Troubled  Dream 

vi.  4~vii.  9 

Idyl     V  : 

The  King's  Meditation  on  his  Bride 

vii.  lo-viii.  4 

Idyl    VI: 

The  Bride's  Longing  for  her  Home  on  Lebanon 

viii.  5-14 

Idyl  VII  : 

The  Renewal  of  Love  in  the  Vineyard  of  Leb- 

anon 

ISAIAH 
A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Seven  Books 

Book  I     .  . 

General  Prophecies 


i.  i 
i.  2-31 
ii-iv 
v.  1-7 
v.  8-30 
vi 


Title  page 

Discourse :  The  Great  Arraignment  (366) 

Discourse :  Through  Judgment  to  Glory  (366) 

Parable  of  the  Vineyard 

Lyric  Prophecy :  A  Sevenfold  Woe 

The  Prophet's  Call 


Book  II 

Prophecies  of  the  Unholy  Alliance  and  the  Sign  Immanuel 

vii-x.  4. 
vii.  1-16  |   Prophecy  of  the  sign  « Immanuel '  (378  and  note) 


ISAIAH 


495 


v  ii.  /7-viii.  8 


viii.  g-ix.  7 
ix.  8-x.  4 


A  Cluster  of  Prophetic  Sentences  against  Israel:  Assyria 
to  come  against  Israel  (vii.  i"f)  —  The  Fly  and  the ' 
Bee  (vii.  18-19)  —  The  Razor  (26)  —  Butter  and 
Honey  (21-2)  —  Briers  and  Thorns  (23-5)  — 
Maher-shalal-hash-baz  (viii.  1-4)  —  The  River  ( j- 
8} .  —  Above,  pages  458-9 

Rhapsodic  Discourse :  Judah  and  her  Enemies 
Lyric  Prophecy:  Doom  of  the  North  (369-71) 


x.  5-xii 


Book  III 

Prophecy  of  Assyrian  Invasion 
x.  5-xii 

Rhapsodic  Discourse:   The  Rod  of  the  Lord  and  the 
Reign  of  Peace  (428) 


xm-xiv.  23 
xiv.  24-7 

28-32 
xv-xvi 
xvii.  I-II 

12-14 
xviii 
xix 


XX 

xxi-xxii.  14 
xxii.  15-25 
xxiii 
xxiv-xxvii 


Book  IV 

A  Cycle  of  Dooms 

xiii-xxvii 

Doom  of  Babylon 

Doom  of  Assyria 

Doom  of  Philistia 

Doom  of  Moab 

Doom  of  Syria  and  Israel 

A  Doom  Song 

Doom  of  Ethiopia  (with  refrain) 

Prophecy  Cluster:  Doom  Song  on  Egypt  (7-77)— followed 
by  a  series  of  Sentences  on  the  Conversion  of  Egypt 
(18,  19-20,  21,  22,  23,  24-5).  —  Above,  pages  460-1 

Emblem  Prophecy  against  Ashdod 

Visions  of  Doom:  The  Prophetic  Watchman  (392,  1 20) 

A  Personal  Denunciation 

Doom  Song  on  Tyre 

Climax  of  Book  IV:  A  Rhapsody  of  Judgment  (416-23) 


496 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


Book  V 

A  Cycle  of  Judgment  and  Restoration  (464) 

xxviii-xxxv 

xxvm-xxxii  Animadversions  upon  the  Political  Situation  of  Judah  as 

a  background  for  picturing  the  Redemption  and  the 
Golden  Age  (464) 

f  xxviii  f  The  Covenant  with  Death  (465) 

xxix  The  Nightmare  of  Judgment  upon  Ariel 

xxx  •   The  Boaster  that  sitteth  still  (465) 

xxxi-xxxii.  8  The  Horses  of  Egypt  and  the  Holy  One  of  Israel 

xxxii.  9-20  [  The  Women  that  are  at  ease 

xxxiii  Rhapsody  of  Salvation  [i  The  Prophet  (beholding  in 

Vision),    2  Israel,  3  Prophetic  Spectator,    7  Scenic, 
8-9  Israel's  Ambassadors,    10  God,    14  (a)    Scenic, 
14  (b)  Sinners  in  Zion,  15-24  The  Godly  in  Zion] 
Finale  to  Book  V:  The  Utter  Destruction  and  the  Great 
Restoration  (465-6) 

Book  VI 

Historical  Excerpt :  Ministry  of  Isaiah  under  Hezekiah 

xxxvi—xxxix 

xxxvi-vii  The  Invasion  of  Sennacherib 

xxxviii  The  Sickness  of  Hezekiah 

xxxix  Hezekiah's  Folly 

Book  VII 

Rhapsody  of  Zion  Redeemed 

xl—lxvi 

Fully  analysed  above,  Chapter  XIX 
xl.  I-II  Prelude 

xl.  1 2-xlviii  Vision      I :  The  Servant  of  Jehovah  Delivered 

xlix-1  Vision     II:  The  Servant  of  Jehovah  Awakened 

li-lii.  12  Vision   III:  The  Awakening  of  Zion 

lii.  13-liii  Vision    IV:  The  Servant  of  Jehovah  Exalted 

liv-lv  Vision      V:  Songs  of  Zion  Exalted  (121-3) 

Ivi-lxii  Vision    VI :   Redemption  at  Work  in  Zion 

Ixiii-lxvi  Vision  VII :  The  Day  of  Judgment 


JEREMIAH 


497 


t.f-3 
i.  4-19 
ii-vi 


JEREMIAH 
A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Ten  Books 

Book  I 
The  Prophefs  Call  and  Manifesto 

i-vi 

Title  fage 

The  Prophet's  Call 

Jeremiah's  Manifesto:  Discourse  culminating  in  Rhap- 
sody of  Doom  and  Panic  (429-32)  [iii.  21  Scenic, 
22  (a)  The  Lord,  22  (^-5  The  People;  iv.  I  The 
Lord,  8  The  People,  9  The  Lord,  10  The  Prophet, 
ii  A  Cry,  12  The  Lord,  13  (b)  The  People,  14  The 
Prophet,  15  A  Voice,  17  The  Lord,  19  The  People, 
22  The  Lord,  23  Vision,  27  The  Lord,  29  Vision  con- 
tinued, 30  The  Lord,  31  Vision  continued;  v.  I  The 
Lord,  3  The  Prophet,  6  The  Lord;  vi.  I  A  Cry, 
2  The  Lord,  4  (a)  The  Enemy,  4  (b)  The  People, 
5  The  Enemy,  7  The  Lord,  24  The  People.  —  27  Epi- 
logue (to  the  Prophet)] 


Book  II 

Miscellaneous  Discourses  and  Sentences 


vii.  1-28 
vii.  29-viii.  3 
viii.  4-ix.  9 

ix.  10-16 

17-22 
23-6 
x.  1-16 


Discourse :  The  Temple  of  the  Lord  are  these 

Discourse :  Topheth 

Rhapsodic  Discourse :  The  Hurt  of  the  Daughter  of  my 
People  [viii.  14  People,  17  God,  18  Prophet,  19  Peo- 
ple, 19  {b)  God,  20  People,  21  Prophet;  ix.  3  {b)  God] 

Rhapsodic  Discourse:  A  Lamentation  for  the  Land  [10 
The  Prophet,  u  God,  12  The  Prophet,  13  God] 

Discourse :  The  Mourning  Women 

Prophetic  (457-8}  Sentences  [23-4,  25-6] 

Sentences  on  Idolatry  [1-5,  6-8  (a),  8  (£)-io,  1 1, 12-16] 

Scene  of  Panic  [17  God,  19  People,  21  God,  22  A  Voice, 
23  People] 


498 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


Book  /// 


Prophecies  of  the  Missionary  Journey 


xi.  1-8 

9-17 

xi.  i8-xii.  6 
xii.  7-13 

14-7 

xiii 


The  Commission  to  Preach  the  Covenant 
Prophetic  Intercourse:  Judah's  Rejection  of  the  Covenant 
Prophetic  Incident :  The  Conspiracy  of  Anathoth 
Prophetic  Sentences  [7,  8,  g  (0),  9  (£)-//,  12,  ij~] 
The  Lord  and  his  Evil  Neighbours 


Emblem  Prophecy:  The  Girdle  and  the  Bottle  (373-4 


Book  IV 

The  Drought  and  other  Prophecies 


xiv-xv 
xvi 

xvii.  1-13 

14-18 
19-27 


Rhapsody  of  the  Drought  (423-7) 

Prophetic  Intercourse:  The  Doom  of  the  Land  [i  The 

Lord,  19  The  Prophet,  21  The  Lord] 
Prophetic  Sentences  \_i-2,  3-4,  j-8,  Q-iO,  //,  12-13  00 » 

13  W] 

Prophetic  Intercourse :  A  Prayer  under  Persecution 
Discourse :  On  the  Sabbath 


Book  V 
Discourses  Founded  on  Pottery 


xix— xx.  6 
xx.  7-18 


Emblem  Prophecy  and  Prophetic  Incident :  Clay  in  the 

Hands  of  the  Potter  (372) 
Prophetic  Incident :  The  Potter's  Bottle  (373) 
Meditations  under  Persecution 


1  Found  attached  to  the  prophecies  of  the  Missionary  Journey,  though  with  no 
necessary  connection. 


JEREMIAH 


499 


11-14 

xxii.  1-9 
10-12 


20-30 

xxiii.  1-8 

9-40 


Book   VI 

Messages  to  Rulers 

xxi— xxiii 

Prophetic  Response :    On  the  Approach  of  Nebuchad- 
rezzar's Army 

A  Warning  to  the  Royal  House 
An  Appeal  to  the  Royal  House 
Discourse :  On  Shallum 
Discourse :  On  Jehoiakim 
Discourse :  On  Coniah 

Sentences  :  The  Shepherds  of  Israel  [1-4,  J-6,  7-5] 
Discourse :  On  False  Prophets 


XXIV 
XXV 

xxvi 
xxvii-xxviii 

xxix 


Book  VII 

Occasional  and  Controversial  Prophecies 
xxiv-xxix 

Emblem  Prophecy:  The  Figs  (372) 

The  Cup  of  the  Lord's  Fury  (391) 

Prophetic  Controversy :  Destruction  of  the  Temple 

Prophetic  Controversy :  The  Yoke 

Epistle :  To  the  Elders  of  the  Captivity 


xxx.  1-3 
4-22 

xxx.  23-xxxi.  20 
txxi.  21-40 


Book  VIII 

Prophecies  of  the  Restoration 


xxx— xxxi 


Preface  to  the  Eighth  Book 

Discourse  (with  Pendulum  Structure)  :  The  Restoration 

of Judah  (112) 

Rhapsodic  Discourse :  The  Restoration  of  Israel 
Prophetic  Sentences  [21-2,  23-6,  27-8,  29-30,  31-4  (  The 
New  Covenant),  35-7, 38-40} 


500 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


xxxiv.  1—7 

8-22 
XXXV 

xxxvi 

xxxvii-ix 
xl-xliii 
xliv 
xlv 


Book  IX 


Incidental  and  Historical  Prophecies 


xxxii—xlv 


Incident 
Incident 
Incident 
Incident 
Incident 


The  Anathoth  Estate 

A  Prophecy  during  the  Siege 

The  Hebrew  Servants 

The  Rechabites 

The  Burning  of  the  Roll 
Prophecy  merged  in  History :  Crisis  of  the  Siege 
Abduction  of  Jeremiah  to  Egypt  (378) 
Prophecy  to  the  Jews  in  Egypt 
Prophetic  Intercourse :  Jeremiah  and  Baruch 


xhi.  i 
xlvi 

xlvii 

xlviii 

xlix.  1-6 
7-22 
23-7 
28-33 
34-9 

l-li 

m 


Book  X 

Dooms  of  the  Nations 
xlvi-li 

Title  page  to  Book  X 

Doom  of  Egypt  [3-12  Lyric  Prophecy:   The  Battle  of 

Carchemish  — 14-28  Doom  of  Egypt] 
Doom  of  the  Philistines 
Doom  of  Moab 

Doom  of  the  Children  of  Ammon 
Doom  of  Edom 
Doom  of  Damascus 
Doom  of  Kedar  and  Hazor     . 
Doom  of  Elam 
Doom  of  Babylon  (373,  395-6) 


Historical  Appendix  to  the  Works  of  Jeremiah 


LAMENTATIONS 
A  Suite  of  Acrostic  Elegies  (168) 


EZEKIEL 


501 


EZEKIEL 
A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Seven  Books  (469) 

Book  I 

The  Opening  of  the  Message 


i-iil  9 

iii.  10-21 

22-7 
iv-v 
vi 
vii 
viii-ri 


The  Prophet's  Commission  to  Rebellious  Israel 

The  Prophet  the  Watchman  of  the  Captivity 

The  Opening  of  the  Mouth 

The  Mimic  Siege  of  Jerusalem  (374) 

The  Doom  of  the  Land 

Behold  it  cometh ! 

VISION  :  JERUSALEM  UNDER  JUDGMENT  (381-2) 

Book  II 

The  Sevenfold  Token 


xii.  I-l 
17-20 
21-5 

26-8 

xiii 

xiv.  i-il 
12-23 


XV 

xvi.  1-43 

44-63 
xvii 
xviii 
xix.  1-9 

10-14 


Stuff  for  Removing 

Bread  of  Trembling 

A  Proverb  of  Vision  Failing 

A  Proverb  of  Vision  Afar  Off 

Trust  in  False  Prophets 

Trust  in  Vain  Inquiry 

Trust  in  Vicarious  Righteousness 

Book  III 

The  Sevenfold  Parable 
xv— xix 

Parable  of  the  Vine 
Parable  of  the  Foundling 
Parable  of  Mother  and  Daughter 
Parable  of  the  Eagles  and  the  Cedar 
The  Proverb  of  Sour  Grapes 
A  Wail  for  a  Young  Lion 
A  Wail  for  a  Broken  Vine 


502 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


Book  IV 

Judgment  of  the  Inquiring  Elders 
xx.  1-44 


xx.  45-9 

xxi 
xxii 
xxiii.  1-35 

36-49 
xxiv.  1-14 
15-27 


XXV 

xxvi 

xxvii 
xxviii.  1-19 

20-24 

25-6 
xxix-xxxii 


XXXlll 

xxxiv 


Book  V 

Seven  Last  Words 

xx.  45— xxiv 

A  Word  against  the  South 
The  Sword  of  the  LORD  (376-7) 
Judgment  of  the  Bloody  City 
Parable  of  Oholah  and  Oholibah 
Judgment  of  Oholah  and  Oholibah 
Parable  of  the  Rusty  Caldron 
Woe  beyond  Mourning 

Book  VI 

Dooms  of  the  Nations 

xxv-xxxii 

A  Cluster  of  Dooms 

Doom  of  Tyre  (398) 

Wreck  of  the  Goodly  Ship  Tyre  (399) 

Doom  of  the  Prince  of  Tyre 

Doom  of  Zidon 

Triumph  of  Israel  amid  the  Doomed  Nations 

Sevenfold  Doom  of  Egypt  [xxix.  I  The  Crocodile  of  Egypt 
—  xxix.  17  Wages  for  Nebuchadrezzar  —  xxx.  I  The 
Day  of  the  LORD  —  xxx.  20  Pharaoh's  Arm  Broken" — 
xxxi.  I  The  Fallen  Cedar  —  xxxii.  I  The  Dragon  of 
the  Seas  —  xxxii.  17  A  Wail  for  Egypt  (400)] 

Book  VII 

The  Fall  and  the  Restoration  to  come 
xxxiii-xlviii 

The  Fall  of  Jerusalem 

The  Shepherds  of  Israel  and  the  Divine  Shepherd 


DANIEL  —  HO  SEA 


503 


XXXV-Vl 

xxxvii.  1-14 

15-28 
xxxviii-ix 
xl-xlviii 


Mount  Seir  and  the  Mountains  of  Israel 

The  Dry  Bones  and  the  Breath  of  the  LORD 

The  Joining  of  the  Sticks 

The  Invasion  of  Gog 

VISION:   JERUSALEM  IN  HER  GLORY  (381-2) 


ii 
iii 
iv 

v 
vi 


DANIEL 
A  Prophetic  Collection  (469,  380) 

Prophetic  Incident :  Daniel  and  the  King's  Meat 
Vision  Interpretation :  The  Image  and  the  Stone 
Prophetic  Incident :  The  Burning  Fiery  Furnace 
Vision  Interpretation :  Nebuchadnezzar's  Dream  of  the 

Tree  cut  down 

Vision  Interpretation :  The  Writing  on  the  Wall 
Prophetic  Incident :  The  Den  of  Lions 

THE  REVELATION  OF  DANIEL  [vii  The  Vision  of  the 
Four  Beasts  —  viii  The  Vision  of  the  Ram  and  the 
He-Goat  —  ix  Vision  of  the  Time  of  Restoration  — 
x  Vision  of  the  Time  of  the  End] 


iv-vi.  n  (a) 

vi.  ii  (£)-viii.  7  ( 
viii. 


ix.  1-6 

ix.  *j-x 

xi-xiv.  8 


xiv.  9 


HOSEA 
A  Prophetic  Collection  (469) 

Emblem  Prophecy  of  Gomer  (375) 
Rhapsodic    Discourse :     Heavy  Corruption    and    Light 
Repentance  [v.  8  Panic,  9  God;  vi.  I  People,  4  God] 
Discourse :   Reaping  the  Whirlwind 
Prophetic  Sentences  [7  (£),  8,  9  (a),  9  (b)-io,  //,  12,  13, 

*4\ 

Discourse :  A  Harvest  Prophecy 

Prophetic  Sentences  [ZJT.  7,  8,  9,  10,  11-12,  13,  14,  15, 

16-17;  x.  1-2,3,  4>J-6>  7-#>  9»  'o,  if,  12,  13-15} 
Dramatic  Prophecy :  The  Yearning  of  God  (387)  [xi.  I 

God  (in  alternating  monologue)  ;   xiv.  I  Repentant 

Israel,  4  God,   8   (a)   Ephraim,   8  (£)  God,  8  (c) 

Ephraim,  8  (</)  God] 
Epilogue  Sentence  to  the  -whole  collection 


504  LITERARY  INDEX   TO   THE  BIBLE 

JOEL 
A  Rhapsody  of  the  Locust  Plague  (411-5) 


AMOS 

A  Prophetic  Collection  (432-4,  115-8) 
An  Oracle  of  the  Earthquake 


1.  1-2 
i.  3-ix 


1. 1 
i.  2-v 
vi.  1-8 


vi.  9~vu 


Rhapsody  of  the  Judgment  to  Come 

OBADIAH 
A  Doom  Prophecy  upon  Edom 

JONAH 
A  Prophetic  Epic  (246,  373) 

MICAH 
A  Prophetic  Collection 

Title  page 

Rhapsodic  Discourse  of  Judgment  and  Salvation 

Dramatic  Prophecy :  The  LORD'S  Controversy  before  the 

Mountains  (385) 
Dramatic  Prophecy:  The  LORD'S  Cry  and  the  Man  of 

Wisdom  (385-9) 


NAHUM 
A  Rhapsodic  Doom  Prophecy  upon  Nineveh 

HABAKKUK 
Rhapsody  of  the  Chaldeans  (405-9) 


ZEPHANIAH—  MALA  CHI 


505 


ZEPHANIAH 
A  Rhapsodic  Discourse  (124) 

HAGGAI 
Four  Occasional  Discourses,  dated 

ZECHARIAH 
A  Prophetic  Collection  in  Two  Books  (470) 

Book  I 

Miscellaneous  Discourses  of  Zechariah 


i.  1-6 

i.  7-vi 


The  Prophet's  Manifesto 
The  Sevenfold  Vision  (466-7) 

An  Inquiry  and  Response  on  Fasting  [including  (461-3) 
several  Prophetic  Sentences] 

Book  II 

Discourses  attributed  to  Zechariah 


ix-xi.  3 
xi.  4-17 
xii-xiii.  6 
xiii.  7-9 

xiv 


Rhapsodic  Discourse :  The  King  of  Peace 
Emblem  Prophecy :  Withdrawal  of  the  Divine  Shepherd 
Discourse :  The  Fountain  for  the  House  of  David 
Discourse :  The  Smiting  of  the  Shepherd  and  the  Scat- 
tering of  the  Sheep 
Discourse :  The  Judgment  and  the  Age  of  Holiness  (368) 


MALACHI 
A  Dialectic  Cycle  of  Seven  Discourses  (383) 

[i.  2-5;    i.  6-ii.  9;    ii.  10-16;    ii.  17-iii.  6;   iii.  7-12;   iii.  I3~iv.  3;    (con- 
clusion) iv.  4-6] 


506 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


WISDOM   OF   SOLOMON 
A  Suite  of  Five  Discourses  in  the  Form  of  Text  and  Comment 

Above,  Chapter  XV :  compare  pages  359-60,  289  note 

i.  l-u  Text  [i.  i]  and  Discourse  I:  Singleness  of  Heart  (346) 

i.  12-vi.  II  Text  [i.  12]  and  Discourse  II:  Immortality  and  the  Cov- 

enant with  Death  (347-51) 

Text  [vi.  1 2]  and  Discourse  III :  Solomon's  Winning  of 
Wisdom  (351-2) 

x-xi.  5  Text l  [ix.  1 8,  last  clause]  and  Discourse  IV :  The  World 

saved  through  Wisdom  (353-4) 

xi.  5~xix  Text 1    [xi.   5]    and   Discourse   V :    Judgments   on   the 

Wicked  turning  to  Blessings  on  God's  People  (354-9) 


ECCLESIASTICUS 

OR 

THE  WISDOM  OF  JESUS  THE   SON   OF  SIRACH 
A  Miscellany  of  Wisdom  in  Five  Books 

Above,  pages  324-7,  289  note,  359-60 
Preface  by  the  Author's  Grandson 

Book  I 


i.  1-20 
22-4 

25-7 
28-30 

ii.  1-6 
7-18 

iii.  1-16 
17-28 
29-31 


Sonnet :  Wisdom  and  Fear  of  the  Lord 

Maxim :  Unjust  Wrath 

A  Maxim 

A  Maxim 

A  Maxim 

Sonnets  True  and  False  Fear 

Essay :  Honour  to  Parents 

Essay :  Meekness 

Disconnected  Sayings 


i  In  these  two  Discourses  the  text  is  made  by  the  concluding  words  of  the  pre« 
ceding  Discourse. 


ECCLESIASTIC  US 


507 


IV.  I-IO 

11-19 

20-8 

iv.  zq-v.  3 
v.  4-8 
v.  9~vi.  I 
vi.  2-4 

5-17 

18-37 
vii.  1-3 

4-6 
vii.  7-18 

19-36 

viii.  I— ix.  1 6 
ix.  17-x.  5 
x.  6-xi.  6 
xi.  7-10 

11-28 

xi.  29— xiii.  24 
xiii.  2$-xiv.  2 
xiv.  3-19 

Xiv.  2O-XV.   IO 
XV.   II-2O 

xvi.  1-23 

xvi.  24-xviii.  14 

xviii.  15-18 

19-27 

xviii.  28-9 
xviii.  3O-xix.  3 
xix.  4-17 
xix.  2O-XX.  13 
xx.  14-31 
xxi.  i-io 

11-26 

xxi.  27-xxii.  5 
xxii.  6-15 

16-26 

xxii.  27-xxiii.  6 
xxiii.  7-15 

16-27 


Essay :  Consideration  for  High  and  Low 
Essay :  Wisdom's  Way  with  her  Children 
Essay :  True  and  False  Shame 
Disconnected  Sayings 
A  Maxim 

Proverb  Cluster :  Government  of  the  Tongue  (299) 
Maxim:  Self- Will 
Essay :  On  Friendship 
Essay :  On  Pursuit  of  Wisdom 
Epigram :  Sowing  and  Reaping 
A  Maxim 

Disconnected  Sayings 
Essay :  Household  Precepts 

Essay :  Adaptation  of  Behaviour  to  Various  Sorts  of  Men 
Essay :  Wisdom  and  Government 
Essay :  Pride  and  True  Greatness 
Proverb  Cluster :  Meddlesomeness 
Essay :  Prosperity  and  Adversity  are  from  the  Lord  (302) 
Essay :  Choice  of  Company 
Disconnected  Sayings 
Essay :  On  Niggardliness 

Essay :  The  Pursuer  of  Wisdom  and  his  Reward 
Essay :  On  Free  Will 
Essay:  No  Safety  for  Sinners 
Essay :  God's  Work  of  Creation  and  Restoration 
Proverb  Cluster :  On  Graciousness 
Essay :  On  Taking  Heed  in  Time 
Disconnected  Sayings 

Three  Temperance  Maxims  [30-31;   32-1  («);    I  (£)~3] 
Essay :  Against  Gossip  (302) 
Essay  :  Wisdom  and  its  Counterfeits 
Disconnected  Sayings 
Proverb  Cluster :  Sin  and  its  Judgment 
Proverb  Cluster :  Wise  Men  and  Fools 
Proverb  Cluster :  The  Hatefulness  of  Evil 
Proverb  Cluster :  Commerce  with  Fools  Intolerable  [in- 
cluding a  Sonnet:  11-12] 

Essay :  The  Steadfast  Friend  and  the  Uncertain 
Sonnet :  Watchfulness  of  Lips  and  Heart  (313) 
Essay :  The  Discipline  of  the  Mouth 
Essay :  The  Horror  of  Adultery 


508 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO   THE  BIBLE 


xxv.  1-2 
3-6 
7-1 1 

13-15 
xxv.  i6-xxvi.  1 8 

xxvi.  28 

xxvi.  2Q-xxvii.  3 
xxvii.  4-7 
xxvii.  8-10 

11-15 

16-21 

22-4 

xxvii.  25-xxviii.  1 1 
xxviii.  12-26 
xxix.  1-20 

21-8 
xxx.  1-13 

14-25 

xxxi.  l-ll 

xxxi.  12-xxxii.  13 

xxxii.  14- 

xxxiii.  6 
xxxiii.  7-15 


Book  II 
xxiv-xxxiii.  fj 

Preface  to  Book  II,  into  which  is  interwoven  (3-22)  a 
Dramatic  Monologue :    Wisdom's  Praise  of  Herself 

(324-5) 

Number  Sonnet:  What  Wisdom  loves  and  hates  (309) 
A  Maxim 

Number  Sonnet:  The  Love  of  the  Lord  (310) 
Epigram :  The  Wrath  of  an  Enemy 
Wisdom  Cluster:  Women  Bad  and  Good  [xxv.  i6-xxvi. 4 

Essay;   5-6  Number  Sonnet ;   7-18  Sonnet] 
Number  Sonnet :  The  Backslider 
Disconnected  Sayings 
Epigram :  Reasoning  the  Test  of  Men 
Disconnected  Sayings 

Proverb  Cluster :  Discourse  of  Wise  and  Fools 
A  Maxim 
A  Maxim 

Essay :  Retribution  and  Vengeance 
Essay :  On  the  Tongue  (300) 
Essay :  On  Lending  and  Suretiship 
Essay :  The  Blessing  of  a  House  of  One's  Own 
Essay :  On  the  Chastisement  of  Children 
Essay:  On  Health 
Essay:  On  Riches 
Essay :  On  Feasting 
Disconnected  Sayings 

Essay :  An  Analogy 


xxxiii.  ib-i8 
19-23 

24-31 

xxxiv.  1-8 

9-12 


Book  HI 
xxxiii.  ib-xxxix.  u 

Preface  to  Book  III  (325) 

Essay :  On  Giving  and  Bequeathing 

Essay :  On  Servants 

Essay:  On  Dreams 

A  Maxim 

Sonnet :  The  Fearers  of  the  Lord 


ECCLESIASTIC  US 


509 


xxxiv.  i8-xxxv 
xxxvi.  1-17 

18-20 

21-6 
xxxvii.  1—6 

7-26 
xxxvii.  27— 

xxxviii.  15 
xxxviii.  16-23 
xxxviii.  24— 

xxxix.  II 


Essay :  On  Sacrifices,  Evil  and  Acceptable 
A  Prayer  for  Mercy  upon  Israel 
Disconnected  Sayings 
Essay :  On  Wives 
Essay :  On  False  Friends 
Essay :  On  Counsel  and  Counsellors  (303-4) 
On  Disease  and  Physicians 


Essay :  On  Mourning  for  the  Dead 
Essay:  The  Wisdom  of  Business  and  the  Wisdom  of 
Leisure 


xxxix.  12-35 

xl.  i-io 

11-27 

28-30 
xli.  1-4 

5-13 

xli.  14-xlii.  8 
xlii.  9-14 


Book  IV 

xxxix.  12-xlii.  14 

Preface  into  which  is  interwoven   (16-31)  a  Rhetoric 

Encomium  of  God's  Works  (325) 
Essay :  The  Burden  of  Life 
A  Pair  of  Sonnets :  A  Garden  of  Blessing 
A  Maxim 

Sonnet :  On  Death 
Essay :  The  Posterity  of  Sinners 
Essay :  Things  to  be  ashamed  of 
Essay :  Women  as  a  Source  of  Trouble 


xlii.  15-xliii 
xliv-1.  24 


Book  V 

Longer  Works 
xlii.  /£-/.  24 

Rhetoric  Encomium :  The  Works  of  the  Lord 

Rhetoric  Encomium :  The  Praise  of  Famous  Men  (325) 


Epilogue  to  the  Whole :  Number  Sonnet  of  the  Hated  Nations  (1.  25-6) — 

Colophon  with  Beatitude  (27-9) 
Author's  Preface  to  the  Whole  (li) 


510  LITERARY  INDEX   TO    THE  BIBLE 


ST.  MATTHEW,  ST.  MARK,  ST.  LUKE,  ST.  JOHN 

Each  of  these  constitutes  a  single  Gospel,  which  must  be  understood  as 
a  specific  literary  form  (256) 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES 
A  continuation  of  one  of  the  Gospels,  and  of  the  same  literary  form  (258) 

EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS 
An  Epistolary  Treatise  (265) 

I,  II  CORINTHIANS 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (264) 

GALATIANS 
An  Epistle  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (264) 

EPHESIANS 
An  Epistolary  Manifesto  (266) 

PHILIPPIANS 
An  Epistle  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (265) 

COLOSSIANS 
An  Epistolary  Manifesto  (266) 

I,  II  THESSALONIANS 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (265) 


TIMO  THY—PE  TER 


511 


I,  II  TIMOTHY 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (265) 

TITUS,  PHILEMON 
Epistles  of  Pastoral  Intercourse  (265) 

HEBREWS 
An  Epistolary  Treatise  (266) 


i./ 

i.  2-4 

5-8 
9-1 1 
12-27 

ii.  1-13 

14-26 
iii.  1-12 

13-18 
iv.  l-io 

11-12 
iv.  I3~v.  1 8 

19-20 


JAMES 
A  Wisdom  Epistle  (327) 

Superscription  to  the  Epistle 

A  Maxim 

A  Maxim 

A  Maxim 

Essay :  On  the  Sources  of  the  Evil  and  the  Good  in  us 

(304-6) 

Essay :  On  Respect  of  Persons 
Essay :  Faith  and  Works 
Essay:  On  the  Responsibility  of  Speech  (301) 
Essay :  The  Earthly  Wisdom  and  the  Wisdom  from  above 
Discourse :  On  Worldly  Pleasures 
A  Maxim  (298) 

Discourse :  The  Judgment  to  come 
A  Maxim 


I,  II  PETER 
Epistolary  Manifestos  (266) 


512 


LITERARY  INDEX   TO   THE  BIBLE 


i.  1-4 

5-7 

i.  8-ii.  2 

ii.  3-6 
7-1 1 
12-14 

IS-1 7 

18-28 

ii.  29-iii.  12 
iii.  13-23 
iii.  24-hr.  6 
iv.  7-21 
v.  1-5 

6-13 
14-17 

I8-2M 


I  JOHN 
A  Wisdom  Epistle  (328-9) 

Prologue 

God  is  Light 

Cleansing  from  Sin 

The  Commandments  our  Surety 

The  Old  Commandment  and  the  New 

The  Three  Ages 

Love  of  the  World 

Antichrist 

Sons  of  God 

Love  of  the  Brethren 

The  Spirit  our  Surety 

Love 

Faith 

The  Three  who  bear  Witness 

Boldness  in  Asking 

Epilogue 


JUDE 
An  Epistolary  Manifesto  (267) 


THE   REVELATION 
A  Vision  Cycle  (471-6) 


APPENDIX   II 

TABLES  OF  LITERARY  FORMS 

This  second  Appendix  is  intended  for  the  technical  student  of  Literary 
Morphology.  It  arranges  in  Tables  all  the  literary  forms  found  in  Scripture, 
•with  the  examples  of  them,  so  that  each  form  can  be  studied  by  itself.  In  the 
case  of  very  common  forms,  such  as  the  simple  Discourse,  it  has  not  been 
thought  necessary  to  give  the  examples.  The  reference  figures  are  to  preced- 
ing pages  of  this  book. 


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xxiv,  Ixxxvii,  xciii.  — 

lin  a  Psalter  :  Psalms 
Prophecy  :  e.g.  Son 

icxx,  Ixxxix,  cxxxvii.  — 
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STORIC  AND  EPIC  LITERATURE  IN  CONNE 

Formation  of  the  Chosen  Nation  :  Book  of  Genesis. 
Genesis  i-xi:  First  Beginnings  of  the  World. 
Patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph. 
:  Framework  of  Genealogies,  Annals,  and  other  cor 
ing  names  of  places  or  relations  of  world-families),  en 
:  Epic  Incidents  :  The  Creation  (in  Sonnet  form 
of  Eden  (ii.  4-iii)  —  Cain  and  Abel  (iv.  1-15)  —  Th 
iham  (page  480)  —  of  Isaac  (page  480)  —  of  Jacob  ( 
Brethren  (xxxvii.  2-36,  xxxix.  i-xlvi.  7,  and  xlvi.  28-3 

>ry:  Migration  of  the  Chosen  Nation  to  the  Lai 
•s,  Numbers. 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers  i-ix.  14:  Deliveran 
and  General  Constitution  of  the  Nation.  Numb 
Wilderness  until  a  new  generation  is  organised  foi 
ive  Revelations  of  the  Law,  and  Incidents  leading  to 
Epic  History:  Moses  and  the  Plagues  of  Egypt 
ciii.  i7-xv.  21  ).  Mixed  Epic  :  Story  of  Balaam  (Nu 

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its  Captivity, 
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which  may  be  added  (outside  the  peric 
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:les  and  sequel  books  of  Ezra  and  Neke, 
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ige  485). 

ospels:  the  term  Gospel  must  be  unders 
t  biographies,  nor  histories,  but  Authorita 
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,  20.  Ecclesiasticus 
7,  19-21  ;  xxii.  1-2  ; 
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Discord  —  xxx.  7-9 
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Wisdom  and  the  House  ol 
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ness  of  God  —  xxx.  11-14  A 
man.  Ecclesiasticus  i.  i-t 
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i.  20-33  Wisdom's  Cry  of 
•siasticus  xxiv.  3-22  Wisdorr 
Search  for  Wisdom  —  Wi 
after  Death  —  vi-ix  Solomo 

Unit  Proverb  organi 
;  The  Transitoriness 
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5-14  Wisdom  and  Hoi 
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Mscourse  with  Objective  or 
ly  the  Scapegoat,  the  Ark  of 
Jtter's  Clay  (Jeremiah  xviii. 
'•  considered  Emblem  Proph- 
17.  The  Emblem  may  come 
lay  be  gesture  (Ezekiel  vi.  i, 
5-13;  Ezekiel  vii.  2-6)  —  or 
.emoval  of  the  Stuff  (Ezekiel 
of  life  (Ezekiel  xxiv.  15-27  ; 

i  xliii.  8-10  ;  Isaiah  viii.  1-4] 
t,  that  is,  miraculous  symbol 
Pharaoh.  Compare  'isaiah 
atthew  xii.  38-40. 

le  from  Emblem  Prophecy: 
;am  (Genesis  xxviii.  12-14). 
i.  1-6;  especially  Ezekiel's 
to  coalesce  with  the  Sign  so 
ifferent  senses  :  (A)  Revela- 
xli). 

iral  and  symbolic,  Interpre- 
it  hands  —  iv  Of  the  tree  cut 
supernatural  and  symbolic 
The  Time  of  Restoration  — 
)hetic  Call  [IsaiaA  vi  ;  Jere- 
etation  symbolic  and  super- 
5  Ram  and  He-Goat.] 
;  over  into  the  Ideal.  Proto- 
ii.  5).  Examples:  Ezekiel's 
i)  and  Jerusalem  Restored 

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God:  Prototype:  Abraham's  Intercession  (Genesis  xviii.  22-33).  —  Examples:  Jer> 
xi-xii.  6,  xvi,  xvii.  14-18,  xviii.  18-23,  xxxi.  23-6;  Ezekiel  iv.  14;  Habakkuk  i 
Compare  above  :  the  Prophetic  Calls. 

Inquirers  :  the  Response  :  compare  as  Prototype  the  primitive  Inquiry  of  the 
(Genesis  xxv.  23;  /  Samuel  xxviii.  6).  —  In  the  Prophetic  Books:  Jeremiah  xxi. 
xlii.  1-22;  Ezekiel  xiv.  i-n,  xx.  1-44;  Zechariah  vii-viii. 

With  this  connect  Dialectic  Prophecy  :  Discourse  founded  on  an  inti 
tion  from  an  imaginary  disputant.  —  Examples  :  Isaiah  xxviii  ;  Jer, 
xiii.  12-14;  Ezekiel  xxxiii.  10-20;  Micah  ii.  6-n.  —  The  whole  of  Aft 
is  a  Dialectic  Cycle. 

the  World:  Prophetic  Incidents  and  Controversies.  —  Conspiracy  of  Anathoth  (Jer, 
„;  -ro  *,;;  &\  nrv,a  D^*»or'c:  n^ttia  tv^-^^^^j,  viv  -i^  r^nt.-^-iroi-c,,  «f  «v,»  T, 

(Jeremiah  xxvi)  —  Of  the  Yoke  (xxvii-viii)  —  The  Anathoth  Estate  (Jeremiah  xx* 

—  The  Siege  (Jeremiah  xxxiv)  —  The  Rechabltes  (Jeremiah  xxxv)  —  The  Burnl 
(Jeremiah  xxxvi)  —  Jeremiah  and  Baruch  (xlv)  —  Daniel  and  the  King's  Meat  (Dai 
—  The  Burning  Fiery  Furnace  (iii)  —  The  Den  of  Lions  (vi). 

lecy  and  History  interwoven  :  Isaiah  xxxvi-ix  ;  Jeremiah  xxxvii-xliv  ;  Jeremiah  ] 
Haggai.  —  Compare  Epic  Prophecy  (Table  III)  and  the  Book  of  Jonah. 

(384)  :  Micah  vi.  1-8  The  Lord's  Controversy  before  the  Mountains  —  Micah  vi.  o-vi 
the  Man  of  Wisdom  —  Hosea  xi-xiv.  8  The  Yearning  of  God.  —  A  Dramatic  scene  of 
7-25)  is  a  link  between  this  type  and  the  Rhapsody.  —  Compare,  generally:  The  £t 

RHAPSODY  OF  ZION  REDEEMED  (ISAIAH  XL-LX  VI)  —  Above,  chapter  XIX. 

sodies  of  Judgment  (Isaiah  xxiv-xxvii)  —  Of  Salvation  (Isaiah  xxxiii)  —  Of  the  Dr 
(Jeremiah  xiv-xv)  —  Of  the  Locust  Plague  (Joel)  —  Of  the  Judgment  to  Come  (Amc 
ix)  —  Of  the  Chaldeans  (Habakkuk) 

sodic  Discourses  :  Discourses  merging  in  Rhapsodies,  or  becoming  rhapsodic  at  part 
points.  —  Isaiah  viii.  g-ix.  7  ;  Isaiah  x.  5-xii  ;  Jeremiah  ii-vi  ;  Jeremiah  viii.  4~ix.  g  • 
miah  xxx.  23-xxxi.  20;  Hosea  iv-vi.  n  (a);  Micah  i.  2-v;  Zechariah  ix-xi.  3.  —  Coi 
the  Book  of  Zephaniah  (page  124)  and  Doom  form  generally  (chapter  XVII). 

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1.  —  LITERATURE  i 

The  Orations  of  Mos 
Miscellaneous  Speed 
Acts  ii.  14-36, 
xx.  18-35,  xx"- 

•  God:  II  Samuel  vii 
Wisdom  ix;  Ecclesiastic 

Pure  Epistles  (Pasto 
I,  II  Thessalon 
Epistolary  Treatises  : 
Wisdom  Epistles  :  7, 
Epistolary  Epne 
Manifestos 

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APPENDIX    III 

A  METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL    VERSE 

THE  Metrical  System  here  described  has  reference  to  the  parallelism  of 
clauses  in  Biblical  verse.  [See  above,  page  46.]  Whatever  else  there  is  of 
metre  in  Biblical  poetry  belongs  to  the  original  language,  and  is  not  imitated 
in  the  ordinary  versions.  Parallelism  is  a  rhythmic  movement  of  the  thought, 
and  is  independent  of  particular  versions.  Such  parallelism  may  be  reduced 
to  a  regular  system. 

General  Ideas  of  Parallelism 

I.  It  has  been  shown  above  (chapter  I)  how  the  versification  of  the  Bible 
Parallelism  rests  mainly,  not  on  such  things  as  rhyme,  or  number  and 

Similar  and  quantity  of  syllables  in  a  line,  but  in  parallelism  of  clauses. 

Dissimilar  jt  ;s  necessary  to  distinguish  Similar  and  Dissimilar  Parallel- 

ism. The  first  obtains  where,  in  a  given  sequence,  all  the  lines  are  equally 
parallel  with  one  another. 

Yet  he  commanded  the  skies  above, 

And  opened  the  doors  of  heaven; 

And  he  rained  down  manna  upon  them  to  eat, 

And  gave  them  of  the  corn  of  heaven. 

Man  did  eat  the  bread  of  the  mighty : 

He  sent  them  meat  to  the  full. 

With  this  compare  Dissimilar  Parallelism,  where  particular  lines  adhere  to- 
gether with  a  bond  that  is  closer  than  the  bond  which  unites  them  all  into  a 
sequence. 

If  thou  hast  sinned, 

What  doest  thou  against  him? 
And  if  thy  transgressions  be  multiplied, 
What  doest  thou  unto  him?^ 
526 


GENERAL  IDEAS   OF  PARALLELISM  527 

The  indenting  of  these  lines  shows  to  the  eye,  what  the  sense  confirms,  that 
the  first  and  third  lines  go  together  in  this  passage,  and  equally  the  second  and 
fourth.  Again : 

Is  the  righteousness  ye  should  speak  dumb? 
Do  ye  judge  uprightly  trie  sons  of  men? 

Yea,  in  heart  ye  work  wickedness; 

Ye  weigh  out  the  violence  of  your  hands  in  the  earth. 

The  wicked  are  estranged  from  the  womb; 

They  go  astray  as  soon  as  they  be  born,  speaking  lies. 

Their  poison  is  like  the  poison  of  a  serpent : 

They  are  like  the  deaf  adder  that  stoppeth  her  ear; 

Which  hearkeneth  not  to  the  voice  of  the  charmers,  charming 
never  so  wisely. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  this  passage  the  first  two  lines  are  bound  together,  and 
again  the  last  seven;  yet  that  the  whole  makes  a  single  sequence  is  clear  from 
the  fact  that  the  same  dissimilar  parallelism  of  2  and  7  is  reproduced  in  the 
passage  which  immediately  follows  (psalm  Iviii). 

Break  their  teeth,  O  God,  in  their  mouth : 

Break  out  the  great  teeth  of  the  young  lions,  O  LORD. 

Let  them  melt  away  as  water  that  runneth  apace : 

When  he  aimeth  his  arrows,  let  them  be  as  though  they  were 
cut  off. 

Let  them  be  as  a  snail  which  melteth  and  passeth  away; 

Like  the  untimely  birth  of  a  woman  that  hath  not  seen  the  sun. 

Before  your  pots  can  feel  the  thorns, 

He  shall  take  them  away  with  a  whirlwind, 

The  green  and  the  burning  alike. 

2.   In  all  discussions  of  parallelism  it  is  important  to  remember — what  has 
repeatedly  been  emphasised  in  this  work1 — that  the   terra    covers  a  wide 

variety  of  structure,  from  the  fainter  parallelism  which  is 

Semi-parallelism 
natural  m  prose  style,  to  a  highly  rhythmic  structure,  which 

is  a  fit  medium  for  the  most  musical  verse.  In  particular,  such  a  case  may  be 
noted  as  the  opening  of  Job,  where,  in  the  midst  of  prose  narrative,  the  excited 
words  of  successive  messengers  make  a  transitional  stage  on  the  way  to  the 
full  verse  of  the  dramatic  speeches. 

1  See  especially  pages  113-29. 


528  A  METRICAL  SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERbL 

And  it  fell  on  a  day  when  his  sons  and  his  daughters  were  eating 
and  drinking  wine  in  their  eldest  brother's  house,  that  there  came  a 
messenger  unto  Job,  and  said : 

The  oxen  were  ploughing, 

and  the  asses  feeding  beside  them; 

and  the  Sabeans  fell  upon  them, 

and  took  them  away; 

Yea,  they  have  slain  the  servants  with  the  edge  of  the  sword; 
and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee ! 

While  he  was  yet  speaking,  there  came  also  another  and  said : 

The  fire  of  God  is  fallen  from  heaven, 
and  hath  burned  up  the  sheep  and  the  servants, 

and  consumed  them; 
and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee ! 

This  may  be  called  Semi-parallelism:  the  clauses  of  the  messengers' 
speeches  seem  to  the  ear  to  break  up  and  separate,  without  becoming  regularly 
parallel  one  to  another.1 

Units  of  Parallelism 

3.  In  regard  to  particular  figures  of  parallelism  we  may  note  three  different 

sources  of  metrical  rhythm  in  Biblical  poetry,  which  have 
Metrical  Units:  t  .,    .    ,  .,          ,.„  .     . 

contributed  three  different  metrical  units. 

4.  The  Traditional  Poetry  preserved  in  the  historical  books  is  for  the  most 

part  based  upon  a  unit  which  may  be  called  a  strain.     This 
the  strain,  f  .         .  '  <•  _..  t 

strain  consists  of  a  couplet,  either  line  of  which  may  be 

strengthened  by  an  additional  line,  but  not  both. 

Assemble  yourselves  and  hear,  ye  sons  of  Jacob, 
And  hearken  unto  Israel  your  father. 

Zebulun  shall  dwell  at  the  haven  of  the  sea, 
And  he  shall  be  for  an  haven  of  ships; 
And  his  border  shall  be  upon  Zidon. 

1  It  appears  to  me  convenient  to  represent  this  Semi-parallelism  by  Centric 
Printing  (the  centre  of  each  line  coinciding  with  the  centre  of  the  page).  This 
device  is  attributed  to  the  poet  Southey,  and  he  has  used  it  in  the  elaborate  verse 
system  of  his  Thalaba  and  Kehama.  Dr.  Samuel  Cox  uses  it  throughout  his 
admirable  version  of  Job. 


UNITS   OF  PARALLELISM  529 

Benjamin  is  a  wolf  that  ravineth : 

In  the  morning  he  shall  devour  the  prey, 
And  at  even  he  shall  divide  the  spoil. 

These  are  three  '  strains '  from  different  parts  of  the  Blessing  of  Jacob :  the 
first  is  simply  a  couplet,  the  second  is  a  couplet  with  its  first  line  strengthened, 
the  third  is  a  couplet  with  its  second  line  strengthened.  It  is  of  great  impor- 
tance for  the  general  appreciation  of  Biblical  verse  to  accustom  the  mind  to 
the  idea  of  this  elastic  unit,  of  which  a  portion  may  or  may  not  be  strengthened 
by  an  additional  line.  When  this  idea  is  grasped  it  becomes  easy  to  see  how, 
for  example,  the  two  halves  of  psalm  iii  (see  above,  page  190)  are  strictly 
symmetrical,  although  one  contains  eight  lines,  the  other  nine:  the  true 
analysis  is  (as  the  indenting  of  the  lines  shows)  that  each  part  is  made  up  of 
four  strains. 

5.  Although  found  extensively  in  such  a  lyric  collection  as  the  Book  of 
Psalms,  yet  this  unit  of  the  strain  may  be  considered  as  the  special  contribu- 
tion of  Traditional  Poetry.  The  power  of  occasionally  strengthening  either 
line  of  a  couplet  by  an  additional  line  gives  such  poetry  a  flexibility  which 
would  be  suitable  to  spontaneous  composition,  and  a  great  deal  of  the  poetry 
in  the  historical  books  is  of  this  nature  (e.g.  the  speeches  of  Balaam,  or  Isaac's 
Blessings  on  Jacob  and  on  Esau).  A  similar  device  is  found  in  connection 
with  the  oral  ballad  poetry  of  England,  of  which  such  collections  as  the  Percy 
Reliques  are  accidentally  preserved  specimens.  Compare  the  following  pas- 
sages (from  the  Ballad  of  Sir  Cauline),  which,  in  the  general  run  of  the  poem, 
stand  parallel  with  one  another. 

Then  answered  him  a  courteous  knight, 

(And  fast  his  hands  gan  wring:) 
Sir  Cauline  is  sick,  and  like  to  die, 

Without  a  good  leeching. 

Fetche  me  down  my  daughter  dear, 

She  is  a  leech  full  fine ; 
Go,  take  him  dough  and  the  baken  bread, 
And  serve  him  with  the  wine  so  red; 

Loth  were  I  him  to  tine. 

6.  A  second  source  of  metrical  rhythm  in  the  Bible  is  Wisdom  literature. 
As  shown  above  (chapter  XIII),  the  elemental  proverb  is  a 
couplet  of  verse,  and  this  couplet  is  a  second  unit  for  Bibli- 
cal metre. 

7.   With  the  earliest  verse  dancing  is  intimately  associated;   indeed,  dance 
motions  may  be  considered  the  scaffolding  by  which  verse  rhythm  has  been 


530  A  METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

built   up.      (Above,   page    152.)      Performance    by   dancers    readily   admits 
antiphony,  as  in  Deborah's  Song  (above,  page  139)  :  such  a  passage  as  this  — 

Women.  Out  of  Ephraim  came  down  they  whose  root  is  in  Amalek  — 
Men.  After  thee,  Benjamin,  among  thy  peoples  — 

Women.   Out  of  Machir  came  down  governors  — 
Men.  And  out  of  Zebulun  they  that  handle   the   marshal's 

staff  — 

Women.  And  the  princes  of  Issachar  were  with  Deborah  — 
Men.        As  was  Issachar,  so  was  Barak : 
Tutti.  Into  the  valley  they  rushed  forth  at  his  feet.  — 

illustrates  how  naturally  such  antiphony  will  carry  division  even  further  than 
the  couplet.  Hence  dancing  has  given  the  single  line,  or 
half-couplet,  as  yet  another  unit  of  Biblical  verse. 


Metrical  Structures 

8.   Coming  to  the  various  structures  built  up  on  the  foundation  of  these 
three  units,  we  note  first  the  Antique  Rhythm  of  Traditional  Poetry.     This  is 

made  by  the  aggregation  of  strains.     Tendencies  may  seem 
Antique  Rhythm  '  ,       .         .  . 

to  show  themselves  towards  the  clustering  of  strains  together 

to  make  stanzas :  but  no  wide  correspondence  will  be  found  extending  over  a 
whole  poem,  or  uniting  one  division  of  a  poem  with  another.  Sometimes,  of 
course,  the  cleavage  of  such  Traditional  Poetry  will  be  determined  by  other 
than  rhythmic  considerations:  an  example  is  the  Blessing  of  Jacob  on  the 
Twelve  Tribes. 

Assemble  yourselves,  and  hear,  ye  sons  of  Jacob; 
And  hearken  unto  Israel  your  Father. 

Reuben,  thou  art  my  firstborn, 

My  might,  and  the  beginning  of  my  strength; 

The  excellency  of  dignity,  and  the  excellency  of  power. 

Unstable  as  water,  thou  shalt  not  have  the  excellency; 
Because  thou  wentest  up  to  thy  father's  bed : 
Then  defiledst  thou  it :  he  went  up  to  my  couch. 

Simeon  and  Levi  are  brethren; 

Weapons  of  violence  are  their  swords. 
O  my  soul,  come  not  thou  into  their  council; 

Unto  their  assembly,  my  glory,  be  not  thou  united; 


METRICAL   STRUCTURES  531 

For  in  their  anger  they  slew  men, 

And  in  their  selfwill  they  houghed  oxen. 
Cursed  be  their  anger,  for  it  was  fierce; 

And  their  wrath,  for  it  was  cruel : 
I  will  divide  them  in  Jacob, 

And  scatter  them  in  Israel. 

Judah,  thee  shall  thy  brethren  praise : 

Thy  hand  shall  be  on  the  neck  of  thine  enemies; 

Thy  father's  sons  shall  bow  down  before  thee. 
Judah  is  a  lion's  whelp; 

From  the  prey,  my  son,  thou  art  gone  up : 
He  stooped  down,  he  couched  as  a  lion, 

And  as  a  lioness;   who  shall  rouse  him  up? 
The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah, 

Nor  the  ruler's  staff  from  between  his  feet, 
Till  he  come  to  Shiloh, 

Having  the  obedience  of  the  peoples. 
Binding  his  foal  unto  the  vine, 

And  his  ass's  colt  unto  the  choice  vine; 
He  hath  washed  his  garments  in  wine, 

And  his  vesture  in  the  blood  of  grapes : 
His  eyes  shall  be  red  with  wine, 

And  his  teeth  white  with  milk. 

Zebulun  shall  dwell  at  the  haven  of  the  sea, 
And  he  shall  be  for  an  haven  of  ships; 
And  his  border  shall  be  upon  Zidon. 

Issachar  is  a  strong  ass 

Couching  down  between  the  sheepfolds: 
And  he  saw  a  resting  place  that  it  was  good, 

And  the  land  that  it  was  pleasant; 
And  he  bowed  his  shoulder  to  bear, 

And  became  a  servant  under  taskwork. 

Dan  shall  judge  his  people, 

As  one  of  the  tribes  of  Israel. 
Dan  shall  be  a  serpent  in  the  way, 

An  adder  in  the  path 
That  biteth  the  horse's  heels, 

So  that  his  rider  falleth  backward. 


532  A   METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

I  have  waited  for  thy  salvation,  O  LORD. 

Gad,  a  troop  shall  press  upon  him : 

But  he  shall  press  upon  their  heel. 

Out  of  Asher  his  bread  shall  be  fat, 
And  he  shall  yield  royal  dainties. 

Naphtali  is  a  hind  let  loose : 
He  giveth  goodly  words. 

Joseph  is  a  fruitful  bough, 

A  fruitful  bough  by  a  fountain ; 

His  branches  run  over  the  wall. 
The  archers  have  sorely  grieved  him, 

And  shot  at  him,  and  persecuted  him : 
But  his  bow  abode  in  strength, 

And  the  arms  of  his  hands  were  made  strong, 
By  the  hands  of  the  Mighty  One  of  Jacob, 

(From  thence  is  the  Shepherd,  the  stone  of  Israel,) 
Even  by  the  God  of  thy  father,  who  shall  help  thee, 

And  by  the  Almighty,  who  shall  bless  thee, 
With  blessings  of  heaven  above, 
Blessings  of  the  deep  that  coucheth  beneath, 

Blessings  of  the  breasts,  and  of  the  womb. 
The  blessings  of  thy  father  have  prevailed 
Above  the  blessings  of  my  progenitors 

Unto  the  utmost  bounds  of  the  everlasting  hills : 
They  shall  be  on  the  head  of  Joseph, 

And  on  the  crown  of  the  head  of  him  that  was  separate 
from  his  brethren. 

Benjamin  is  a  wolf  that  ravineth : 

In  the  morning  he  shall  devour  the  prey, 
And  at  even  he  shall  divide  the  spoil. 

This  Blessing,  one  of  the  most  considerable  examples  of  Traditional  Poetry 
that  have  come  down  to  us,  illustrates  to  what  degree  in  such  poetry  the 
aggregation  of  strains  travels  in  the  direction  of  more  elaborate  structure. 
By  natural  cleavage,  flowing  directly  from  the  subject  of  the  poem,  we  get 
twelve  divisions  (or  rather  eleven,  Simeon  and  Levi  being  taken  together). 
These  divisions  are  found  to  be  very  unequal,  consisting  of  one,  two,  three, 


METRICAL   STRUCTURES  533 

five,  or  eight  strains.  There  is  more  of  form  than  is  usual  in  such  Traditional 
Poetry :  besides  an  introduction  there  is  an  exclamation  of  the  speaker  divid- 
ing the  whole  into  two  parts : 

I  have  waited  for  thy  salvation,  O  LORD. 

Yet  so  little  does  the  sense  of  balance  rule  that  we  find  seven  tribes  dealt  with 
before  the  dividing  line,  and  only  five  after.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a 
suggestion  of  a  sense  of  balance  when  we  find  that  the  long  blessings  on 
Judah  and  on  Joseph,  which  respectively  make  the  pieces  de  resistance  of  the 
two  parts,  consist  each  of  eight  strains.  So  far  as  this  natural  cleavage  deter- 
mines the  divisions  of  such  poems  the  form  is  akin  to  what  is  described  below 
as  Strophic  Structure. 

9.  A  second  type  of  structure  is  exhibited  when  a  whole  poem,  or  section 
of  a  poem,  falls  into  similar  figures  of  parallelism,  such  as  quatrains,  sextets, 

etc.     This  is  familiar  in  the  stanzas  of  a  modern  hymnbook. 

Stanza  Structure, 
But  there  is  one  important  difference :  Biblical  stanzas  may 

be  founded,  not  only  on  the  unit  of  the  couplet,  or  of  the  single  line,  but  also 
on  the  elastic  unit  of  the  strain,  and  in  this  last  case  the  stanzas  may  differ  in 
the  number  of  lines  contained  in  each.  Thus  psalm  vi  (printed  in  full  on 
pages  188-9)  contains  three  stanzas  of  three  strains  each:  it  will  be  seen  by 
counting  that  the  number  of  lines  differs  in  the  different  sections.  [Similarly, 
psalm  xxii  has  three  stanzas  of  eleven  strains  each ;  psalm  Ixxvii,  seven  stanzas 
of  three  strains  each.]  For  stanzas  founded  on  couplets :  psalm  cxxi  may 
serve  as  an  example  of  quatrains  (see  page  50) :  in  all  arrangements  of  Bib- 
lical lyrics  this  is  a  common  figure.  [E.g.  psalms  xii,  xiii,  xxviii,  xxxii,  etc.1] 
For  sextets,  psalm  Ixxxvii  is  a  simple  example ;  others  are  psalms  xlviii,  bcxvi, 
cxlii.  The  stanza  of  the  (acrostic)  psalm  cxix  is  an  octet,  in  this  case,  a  figure 
of  eight  couplets.  Stanzas  founded  on  the  unit  of  the  single  line  are  less 
ccmmon :  psalm  liii  is  one  example. 

The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart :  There  is  no  God. 
Corrupt  are  they,  and  have  done  abominable  iniquity; 
There  is  none  that  doeth  good. 

God  looked  down  from  heaven  upon  the  children  of  men, 
To  see  if  there  were  any  that  did  understand, 
That  did  seek  after  God. 

i  Unless  stated  otherwise,  references  are  to  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible  [here- 
after referred  to  as  M.  R.  B.] ,  where  the  present  metrical  system  is  followed 
throughout. 


534  A   METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSlL 

Every  one  of  them  is  gone  back;  they  are  together  become  filthy; 
There  is  none  that  doeth  good, 
No,  not  one. 

"  Have  the  workers  of  iniquity  no  knowledge, 
"  Who  eat  up  my  people  as  they  eat  bread, 
"  And  call  not  upon  God  ?  " 

There  were  they  in  great  fear,  where  no  fear  was : 
For  God  hath  scattered  the  bones  of  him  that  encampeth  against  thee ; 
Thou  hast  put  them  to  shame,  because  God  hath  rejected  them. 


O  that  the  salvation  of  Israel  were  come  out  of  Zion ! 
When  God  bringeth  back  the  captivity  of  his  people, 
Then  shall  Jacob  rejoice,  and  Israel  shall  be  glad. 

IO.   A  great   rhythmic    effect  is  produced   in   Biblical   poetry  by  Mixed 

Stanzas :  stanzas  of  more  than  one  figure  are  found  in  the  same  poem,  and 

the  transition  from  one  figure  to  another  reflects  transitions 

and  Mixed  of  thought     It  is  difficult  to  do  full  justice  to  this  without 

Stanzas  v   , 

printing  lengthy  poems.     One  of  the  simpler  examples  is  in 

yob  [section  16,  of  the  M.  R.  B.  arrangement:  other  examples  are  sections 
n,  24,  42].  Eliphaz  is  shocked  that  Job  should  resist  alike  the  visitation  of 
God  and  the  unanimous  advice  of  the  three  Friends :  as  he  gives  vent  to  this 
feeling,  quatrains  are  found  to  express  the  resistance  to  the  Friends,  stanzas 
of  2, 4  the  resistance  to  God.  The  two  types  are  not  separated,  but  inter- 
mingle in  successive  stanzas,  with  three  stanzas  of  each  type :  yet  the  appro- 
priation of  each  form  to  its  thought  is  in  all  cases  clear. 

Should  a  wise  man  make  answer  with  vain  knowledge, 

And  fill  his  belly  with  the  east  wind? 
Should  he  reason  with  unprofitable  talk, 

Or  with  speeches  wherewith  he  can  do  no  good? 

Yea,  thou  doest  away  with  fear, 
And  restrainest  devotion  before  God. 

For  thine  iniquity  teacheth  thy  mouth, 

And  thou  choosest  the  tongue  of  the  crafty. 

Thine  own  mouth  condemneth  thee,  and  not  I; 

Yea,'  thine  own  lips  testify  against  thee. 


METRICAL   STRUCTURES  535 

Art  thou  the  first  man  that  was  born? 

Or  wast  thou  brought  forth  before  the  hills? 
Hast  thou  heard  the  secret  counsel  of  God? 
•     And  dost  thou  restrain  wisdom  to  thyself? 

What  knowest  thou,  that  we  know  not? 

What  understandest  thou,  which  is  not  in  us? 
With  us  are  both  the  grayheaded  and  the  very  aged  men, 

Much  elder  than  thy  father. 

Are  the  consolations  of  God  too  small  for  thee, 
And  the  word  that  dealeth  gently  with  thee  ? 

Why  doth  thine  heart  carry  thee  away? 

And  why  do  thine  eyes  wink? 

That  thou  turnest  thy  spirit  against  God, 

And  lettest  such  words  go  out  of  thy  mouth. 

What  is  man  that  he  should  be  clean  ? 

And  he  which  is  born  of  a  woman,  that  he  should  be  righteous? 

Behold,  he  putteth  no  trust  in  his  holy  ones; 

Yea,  the  heavens  are  not  clean  in  his  sight. 

How  much  less  one  that  is  abominable  and  corrupt, 

A  man  that  drinketh  iniquity  like  water. 

Another  example  of  Mixed  Stanzas  is  given  by  the  companion  psalms  ciii,  civ, 
which  are  cast  in  a  common  mould  of  stanzas  of  five  and  of  four  (couplets 
or  strains).  The  first  has  stanzas  of  five,  as  long  as  it  is  celebrating  the 
goodness  of  God. 

Bless  the  LORD,  O  my  soul; 

And  all  that  is  within  me,  bless  his  holy  name. 
Bless  the  LORD,  O  my  soul, 

And  forget  not  all  his  benefits : 
Who  forgiveth  all  thine  iniquities; 

Who  healeth  all  thy  diseases; 
Who  redeemeth  thy  life  from  destruction, 

Who  crowneth  thee  with  lovingkindness  and  tender 

mercies; 
Who  satisfieth  thy  mouth  with  good  things; 

So  that  thy  youth  is  renewed  like  the  eagle. 


536  A  METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

The  LORD  executeth  righteous  acts, 

And  judgements  for  all  that  are  oppressed. 
He  made  known  his  ways  unto  Moses, 

His  doings  unto  the  children  of  Israel. 
The  LORD  is  full  of  compassion  and  gracious, 

Slow  to  anger  and  plenteous  in  mercy. 
He  will  not  always  chide; 

Neither  will  he  keep  his  anger  for  ever. 
He  hath  not  dealt  with  us  after  our  sins, 

Nor  rewarded  us  after  our  iniquities. 

The  celebration  of  God's  goodness  has  reached  the  point  of  his  attitude  to 
human  frailty :  at  once  the  form  sinks  to  stanzas  of  four. 

For  as  the  heaven  is  high  above  the  earth, 

So  great  is  his  mercy  toward  them  that  fear  him. 
As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west, 

So  far  hath  he  removed  our  transgressions  from  us. 
Like  as  a  father  pitieth  his  children, 

So  the  LORD  pitieth  them  that  fear  him. 
For  he  knoweth  our  frame; 

He  remembereth  that  we  are  dust. 

As  for  man,  his  days  are  as  grass; 

As  the  flower  of  the  field,  so  he  flourisheth. 
For  the  wind  passeth  over  it,  and  it  is  gone; 

And  the  place  thereof  shall  know  it  no  more. 
But  the  mercy  of  the  LORD  is  from  everlasting  to  everlasting 
upon  them  that  fear  him, 

And  his  righteousness  unto  children's  children; 
To  such  as  keep  his  covenant, 

And  to  those  that  remember  his  precepts  to  do  them. 

From  the  topic  of  God's  ways  with  feeble  man  the  psalm  springs  to  the  Divine 
rule  over  the  glorious  angels,  and  the  rhythm  similarly  springs  back  to  the 
stanza  of  five. 

The  LORD  hath  established  his  throne  in  the  heavens, 

And  his  kingdom  ruleth  over  all. 
Bless  the  LORD,  ye  angels  of  his, 

Ye  mighty  in  strength; 


METRICAL   STRUCTURES  537 

That  fulfil  his  word, 

Hearkening  unto  the  voice  of  his  word. 
Bless  the  LORD,  all  ye  his  hosts; 

Ye  ministers  of  his,  that  do  his  pleasure, 
Bless  the  LORD,  all  ye  his  works, 

In  all  places  of  his  dominion.1 

The  same  rhythmic  interchange  (with  a  slight  variation)  rules  the  companion 
psalm.  Five  stanzas  of  five  couplets  each  paint  the  glory  of  God  in  external 
nature,  until  the  topic  is  reached  of  the  dependence  of  all  these  living  things 
on  God :  here  stanzas  of  four  appear,  (with  the  variation  of  a  change  from 
couplet  units  to  strains) . 

O  LORD,  how  manifold  are  thy  works ! 
In  wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all, 

The  earth  is  full  of  thy  riches. 
Yonder  is  the  sea,  great  and  wide, 
Wherein  are  things  creeping,  innumerable, 

Both  small  and  great  beasts. 
There  go  the  ships; 

There  is  leviathan  whom  thou  hast  formed  to  take 

his  pastime  therein. 
These  wait  all  upon  thee, 
That  thou  mayest  give  them  their  meat  in  due  season; 

That  thou  givest  unto  them  they  gather : 

Thou  openest  thine  hand, 

They  are  satisfied  with  good : 
Thou  hidest  thy  face, 

They  are  troubled; 
Thou  takest  away  their  breath, 

They  die, 

And  return  to  their  dust  • 
Thou  sendest  forth  thy  spirit, 

They  are  created ; 

And  thou  renewest  the  face  of  the  ground. 

As  in  the  other  case,  there  is  a  spring  back  to  the  first  theme  and  the  first 
form  of  stanza. 

l  The  exclamation  that  follows,  Bless  the  LORD,  O  my  soul,  is  the  enveloping 
refrain,  which  comes  at  the  end  of  both  psalms,  and  in  both  is  outside  the  rhythm. 


538          A   METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

Let  the  glory  of  the  LORD  endure  for  ever; 

Let  the  LORD  rejoice  in  his  works : 
Who  looketh  on  the  earth,  and  it  trembleth; 

He  toucheth  the  mountains,  and  they  smoke. 
I  will  sing  unto  the  LORD  as  long  as  I  live : 

I  will  sing  praise  to  my  God  while  I  have  any  being. 
Let  my  meditation  be  sweet  unto  him : 

I  will  rejoice  in  the  LORD. 
Let  sinners  be  consumed  out  of  the  earth, 

And  let  the  wicked  be  no  more. 

[For  other  examples,  see  M.  R.  B.  Psalms,  page  159  of  volume  one.  Compare 
(below)  the  similar  device  of  Interruption.] 

II.   A  third  structure,  Antistrophic,  has  been  fully  described  in  the  body 
of  this  work  (pages  50-3).     Here  the  stanzas  run  in  pairs,  strophe  and  anti- 
strophe,  and  the  rhythm  of  the  strophe  is  exactly  repro- 

Antistrophic  duced  in  its  antistrophe.     The  form  is  very  familiar  in  Greek 

Structure, 

poetry.     There,  however,  it  is  mainly  metrical  in  its  effect, 

the  change  from  a  strophe  to  its  antistrophe  reflecting  no  change  of  thought. 
In  Scripture,  especially  in  Wisdom  literature,  the  change  from  strophe  to  anti- 
strophe  is  rhetorical  as  well  as  metrical.  Thus  (Proverbs,  chapter  ii)  : 

My  son,  if  thou  wilt  receive  my  words, 
And  lay  up  my  commandments  with  thee; 
So  that  thou  incline  thine  ear  unto  wisdom, 
And  apply  thine  heart  to  understanding; 
Yea,  if  thou  cry  after  discernment, 
And  lift  up  thy  voice  for  understanding; 
If  thou  seek  her  as  silver, 
And  search  for  her  as  for  hid  treasures : 

Then  shalt  thou  understand  the  fear  of  the  LORD, 

And  find  the  knowledge  of  God. 

For  the  LORD  giveth  wisdom; 

Out  of  his  mouth  cometh  knowledge  and  understanding : 

He  layeth  up  sound  wisdom  for  the  upright, 

He  is  a  shield  to  them  that  walk  in  integrity; 

That  he  may  guard  the  paths  of  judgement, 

And  preserve  the  way  of  his  saints. 

Here  the  strophe  and  antistrophe,  each  of  eight  lines,  are  the  protasis  an., 
apodosis  of  the  same  conditional  sentence.  The  union  of  metrical  and  rhetot  * 
ical  in  antistrophic  correspondence  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fiftieth  psalm, 


METRICAL  STRUCTURES  539 

After  an  introduction,  presenting  a  scene  of  judgment,  we  find  a  strophe  con- 
veying God's  address  to  his  people,  the  antistrophe  the  Divine  address  to  the 
wicked.  Each  contains  nineteen  lines:  but  further,  when  the  dissimilar 
parallelism  is  examined,  it  is  found  that  in  each  three  lines  make  an  invoca- 
tion, twelve  a  remonstrance,  and  four  a  solemn  decree. 

Strophe 

Hear,  O  my  people,  and  I  will  speak; 

0  Israel,  and  I  will  testify  unto  thee : 

1  am  God,  even  thy  God. 

I  will  not  reprove  thee  for  thy  sacrifices; 

And  thy  burnt  offerings  are  continually  before  me. 

I  will  take  no  bullock  out  of  thy  house, 

Nor  he-goats  out  of  thy  folds. 

For  every  beast  of  the  forest  is  mine, 

And  the  cattle  upon  a  thousand  hills. 

I  know  all  the  fowls  of  the  mountains; 

And  the  wild  beasts  of  the  field  are  mine. 

If  I  were  hungry,  I  would  not  tell  thee : 

For  the  world  is  mine,  and  the  fulness  thereof. 

Will  I  eat  the  flesh  of  bulls, 

Or  drink  the  blood  of  goats? 
Offer  unto  God  the  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving; 
And  pay  thy  vows  unto  the  Most  High : 
And  call  upon  me  in  the  day  of  trouble ; 
I  will  deliver  thee,  and  thou  shall  glorify  me. 

Antistrophe 

But  unto  the  wicked  God  saith, 

What  hast  thou  to  do  to  declare  my  statutes, 

And  that  thou  hast  taken  my  covenant  in  thy  mouth  ? 

Seeing  thou  hatest  instruction, 

And  easiest  my  words  behind  thee. 

When  thou  sawest  a  thief,  thou  consentedst  with  him, 

And  hast  been  partaker  with  adulterers. 

Thou  givest  thy  mouth  to  evil, 

And  thy  tongue  frameth  deceit. 

Thou  sittest  and  speakest  against  thy  brother; 

Thou  slanderest  thine  own  mother's  son. 

These  things  hast  thou  done,  and  I  kept  silence; 

Thou  thoughtest  that  I  was  altogether  such  an  one  as  thyself: 


540  A  METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

But  I  will  reprove  thee, 

And  set  them  in  order  before  thine  eyes. 
Now  consider  this,  ye  that  forget  God, 
Lest  I  tear  you  in  pieces,  and  there  be  none  to  deliver. 
Whoso  offereth  the  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  glorifieth  me ; 
And  to  him  that  ordereth  his  conversation  aright  will  I  shew  the 
salvation  of  God. 

12.  The  Antistrophic  Structure  may  be  upon  a  basis  of  the  single  line  unit 
[psalms  xxxvi,  1,  IviiiJ,  or  the  couplet  unit  [psalms  xxi,  Ivii,  Ixii,  Ixxxi,  xcii, 

cxiii,  cxxvi],  or  the  unit  of  the  strain  [psalms  iii,  xvi,  xxiv, 
combined  with  xxxviii,  xlv,  etc.].  The  most  important  example  of  the  last 

•  n«1(iUe      ,y  is  the  poem  of  Solomon's  Song,  which  exhibits  an  interesting 

in  Solomon's 

Song  combination  of  Antique  Rhythm  and  Antistrophic  Structure. 

As  arranged  in  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible  [Biblical  Idyls  : 
see  page  119]  it  presents  a  complete  antistrophic  system,  broken  only  by 
exceptions  which  confirm  the  general  principle  of  arrangement.  Thus,  the 
refrains  which  are  used  to  separate  the  seven  idyls,  or  to  break  the  longer 
idyls  into  parts,  are  found  to  be  outside  the  antistrophic  plan,  which  is  a  con- 
firmation of  the  parenthetic  character  claimed  for  them.  Again,  there  is  a 
break  in  the  antistrophic  completeness  in  Idyl  V  [see  page  123]  :  the  passage 
which  there  falls  outside  the  rhythmic  system  is  equally  outside  the  continuity 
of  thought,  being  (according  to  the  theory  of  the  poem  I  have  advocated  in 
chapter  VIII  of  this  work)  a  dramatised  reminiscence  of  a  former  incident, 
breaking  the  king's  present  meditation.  Such  an  effect  belongs  to  the 
'  Interruption '  described  below. 

13.  When   the   antistrophic  structure   extends  beyond   a  single   pair  of 
strophes  three  varieties  appear,  which   may  be  represented  by  the  three 
formulae : 

aa',  bb> 
ab,  a'b' 
ab,  b'a' 

The  first  and  simplest  is  Antistrophic  Alternation,  in  which  each  strophe  is 
immediately  followed  by  its  antistrophe :  its  formula  is  thus 
Antistrophic  aa>    M,    cfi    etc        Psalin  xxx   (printed  above,   page  51) 

Alternation  and      .       ,    ,.  rrwiT 

Interlacing  1S  of  this  ^P6'   lts  stanzas  run   6>6;  3,3!  4>4-     [Others 

are  psalms  ii,  xxxiv,  xxxix,  etc.]  Antistrophic  Interlacing 
is  represented  by  the  formula  ab,  a'b' :  it  implies  that  the  first  strophe  is 
followed  by  a  second  of  different  rhythm,  then  comes  the  antistrophe  to  the 
first,  and  then  the  antistrophe  to  the  second.  Psalm  ex  will  illustrate.  Two 
oracles,  in  condensed  speech  and  triplet  form,  make  one  strophe  and  rnti 


METRICAL   STRUCTURES  541 

strophe;  the  fulfilment  of  each  oracle,  in  long  rolling  quatrains,  make  the 
other  pair. 

Strophe  i 

The  LORD  saith  unto  my  lord, 

"  Sit  thou  at  my  right  hand, 

Until  I  make  thine  enemies  thy  footstool." 

Strophe  2 

The  LORD  shall  stretch  forth  the  rod  of  thy  strength  out  of  Zion: 
Rule  thou  in  the  midst  of  thine  enemies. 

Thy  people  offer  themselves  willingly  in  the  day  of  thy  power : 
On  the  mountains  of  holiness,  from  the  womb  of  the  morning,  thy 
youth  are  to  thee  as  the  dew. 

Antistrophe  i 

The  LORD  hath  sworn,  and  will  not  repent, 
"  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever, 
After  the  order  of  Melchizedek." 

Antistrophe  2 

The  LORD  at  thy  right  hand  shall  strike  through  kings  in  the  day 

of  his  wrath. 
He  shall  judge  among  the  nations  —  the  places  are  full  of  dead 

bodies  — 

He  shall  strike  through  the  head  over  a  wide  land : 
He  shall  drink  of  the  brook  in  the  way,  therefore  shall  he  lift  up  his 

head. 

[Compare  also  in  M.  R.  B.  arrangement  psalms  v,  xix,  lix,  xcix.] 

14.  The  third  and  most  important  of  the  three  varieties  is  Antistrophic 
Inversion,1  where  the  antistrophe  to  the  second  strophe  precedes  the  anti- 
strophe  to  the  first.  The  formula  is  thus  ab,  b'a'.  This  has 

Antistrophic 
been  illustrated  in   the   body  ot  this  work   (pages  54~5)-    inversion 

Other  illustrations  are  psalms  Ixxix  (in  strains  4,3;  3,4), 
cxxvii  (in  lines  4,3;  3,4).  In  the  elaborate  metrical  system  of  Job  it  is 
noticeable  that,  while  other  types  of  the  structure  are  common,  antistrophic 
inversion  is  confined  to  the  speeches  of  Job  himself.  The  most  pronounced 
example  is  where  we  get  the  form  2, 3;  3,2 ;  3,2;  2,3:  this  is  a  sort  of 
inverted  inversion. 

i  Sometimes  called  Introversion. 


542          A  METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  Br&IJCAL   VERSE 

No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people, 
And  wisdom  shall  die  with  you. 

But  I  have  understanding  as  well  as  you; 

I  am  not  inferior  to  you : 

Yea,  who  knoweth  not  such  things  as  these  ? 

I  am  as  one  that  is  a  laughing-stock  to  his  neighbour, 
A  man  that  called  upon  God,  and  he  answered  him, 
The  just,  the  perfect  man  is  a  laughing-stock. 

In  the  thought  of  him  that  is  at  ease  there  is  contempt  for 

misfortune, 
It  is  ready  for  them  whose  foot  slippeth. 


The  tents  of  robbers  prosper, 

And  they  that  provoke  God  are  secure, 

That  bring  their  god  in  their  hand. 

But  ask  now  the  beasts,  and  they  shall  teach  thee; 
And  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  they  shall  tell  thee; 

Or,  speak  to  the  earth,  and  it  shall  teach  thee; 
And  the  fishes  of  the  sea  shall  declare  unto  thee : 

Who  knoweth  not  in  all  these  that  "  the  hand  of  the  LORD  hath 

wrought  this?" 

In  whose  hand  is  the  soul  of  every  living  thing, 
And  the  breath  of  all  mankind. 


15.   From  Antistrophic  we  must  distinguish  Strophic  Structure:  here  the 

strophes  have  no  correspondence  of  rhythmic  form,  but  are  merely  divisions 

resting  upon  the  thought  of  the  poem,  like  the  paragraphs 

of  prose.    This  structure  is  natural  where  the  divisions  of  a 
Structure 

poem  are  made  by  speakers,  as  m  psalm  xx  (printed  above, 

page  53) ;  or  in  the  liturgies  which  combine  separate  moods  of  worship  (see 
psalm  Ixv,  printed  on  page  199).  Its  occurrence  in  the  longer  poems  of 
Antique  Rhythm  has  been  pointed  out  above  (page  533).  It  is  noticeable 
that  this  Strophic  Structure  does  not  occur  in  Wisdom  literature.  [Other 
examples  in  the  psalms  are  i,  iv,  xvi:i,  xli,  etc.] 


STRUCTURAL  ELABORATIONS  543 

1 6.  The  Envelope  Structure  has  been  mentioned  in  the  body  of  this  work 
(page  56) :  the  opening  line  or  lines  of  a  sequence  are  repeated  at  the  close, 
all  that  intervenes  being  read  in  the  light  of  this  envelop- 
ment.   Psalm  viii  (printed  on  page  66)  is  a  perfect  example.    Envel°Pe 

~  v  .     Structure 

Compare  also  psalms  cm-iv.      More  usually  the  figure  is 

modified :  the  opening  and  close  unite  in  a  single  thought  of  which  the 
intermediate  parts  are  an  expansion.  This  has  been  illustrated  in  application 
to  the  Lord's  Prayer  (page  65),  and  to  psalms  xv,  cxxxix  (pages  57,  94).  It 
may  be  observed  that  the  type  of  lyric  structure  called  in  this  work  the 
Dramatic  Anthem  (pages  191-4)  is  closely  akin  to  the  Envelope  figure :  the 
opening  and  closing  tones  are  the  same,  and  in  what  intervenes  there  has 
been  a  change  to  an  earlier  mood  of  the  speaker. 

17.  Number  Structure  has  been  described  in  connection  with  the  Fixed 

Sonnet,  and  examples  have  been  given  (page  ^08).     The 

'  .         -   ...    °  °       ,    .  Number  Structure 

most   elaborate   examples   of   this   form  are   Ecclesiasticus, 

chapter  xxv.  7,  and  Job,  chapter  v.  19:  the  former  is  founded  on  the  number 
ten;  the  latter  has  the  number  seven,  and  is  worked  out  in  couplets. 

1 8.  The  Doom  Form  is  a  type  of  structure  combining  recitative  and  more 

rhythmical  verse  in  a  way  which  may  be  conveniently  repre- 

'  ,  The  Doom  Form 

sented  to  the  eye  by  the  conventional  forms  of  modern  prose 

and  verse.     It  has  been  fully  described  and  illustrated  (page  123). 


Structural  Elaborations 

19.  The  regularity  of  the  Antistrophic  structure  is  not  inconsistent  with 
single  stanzas  of  independent  rhythm  at  the  'beginning  and 

end :    compare  the   mesodes  and  epodes   of  Greek   poetry.    lntroduc  ions, 

Conclusions, 
Such  Introductions  and  Conclusions  apply  in  Biblical  poetry 

also  to  the  Stanza  structure.     Thus  psalm  xxvi  has  an  introduction : 

Judge  me,  O  LORD,  for  I  have  walked  in  mine  integrity : 
I  have  trusted  also  in  the  LORD  without  wavering. 
Examine  me,  O  LORD,  and  prove  me; 
Try  my  reins  and  my  heart. 

Then  follows  a  claim  of  innocency  as  a  result  of  that  self-examination,  disposed 
in  three  sextet  stanzas;   after  which  a  brief  conclusion  recognises  the  result. 

My  foot  standeth  in  an  even  place  : 

In  the  congregations  will  I  bless  the  LORD. 


544  A  METRICAL  SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

A  conclusion,  without  an  introduction,  has  been  illustrated  in  a  Wisdom  poem 
on  pages  52-3.  Sometimes  the  conclusions  may  be  postscripts  adapting  the 

song  to  other  uses  (psalms  xiv,  li,  cxxviii,  cxxx,  cxxxi).    Akin 
and  Leads 

to  such  introductions  are  the  Leads :    a  couplet  or  triplet 

leads  off  with  a  theme,  which  is  then  developed  in  one  or  more  stanzas,  as 
where,  in  modern  ritual,  a  priest  leads  off  and  the  choir  follow.  A  clear 
example  is  a  portion  of  the  dramatic  monologue  in  Proverbs,  chapters  vii-viii. 

I  Wisdom  have  made  subtilty  my  dwelling, 
And  find  out  knowlege  and  discretion. 

The  fear  of  the  LORD  is  to  hate  evil; 
Pride  and  arrogancy, 
And  the  evil  way, 
And  the  froward  mouth,  do  I  hate. 

Counsel  is  mine, 

And  sound  knowledge; 
I  am  understanding, 
I  have  might. 

By  me  kings  reign, 

And  princes  decree  justice; 

By  me  princes  rule, 

And  nobles,  even  all  the  judges  of  the  earth. 


I  love  them  that  love  me ; 

And  those  that  seek  me  diligently  shall  find  me. 

Riches  and  honour  are  with  me; 

Durable  riches  and  righteousness; 

My  fruit  is  better  than  gold,  yea,  than  fine  gold; 

And  my  revenue  than  choice  silver. 

I  walk  in  the  way  of  righteousness, 

In  the  midst  of  the  paths  of  judgement : 

That  I  may  cause  those  that  love  me  to  inherit  substance, 

And  that  I  may  fill  their  treasuries. 


The  LORD  formed  me  in  the  beginning  of  his  way, 
Before  his  works  of  old. 


STRUCTURAL  ELABORATIONS  545 

I  was  set  up  from  everlasting,  from  the  beginning, 
Or  ever  the  earth  was. 

When  there  were  no  depths,  I  was  brought  forth, 
When  there  were  no  fountains  abounding  with  water. 

Before  the  mountains  were  settled, 

Before  the  hills,  was  I  brought  forth : 
While  as  yet  he  had  not  made  the  earth, 
Nor  the  fields, 
Nor  the  beginning  of  the  dust  of  the  world. 

When  he  established  the  heavens,  I  was  there : 

When  he  set  a  circle  upon  the  face  of  the  deep : 

When  he  made  firm  the  skies  above, 

When  the  foundations  of  the  deep  became  strong : 

When  he  gave  to  the  sea  its  bound, 

That  the  waters  should  not  transgress  his  commandment : 

When  he  marked  out  the  foundations  of  the  earth, 
Then  I  was  by  him, 
As  a  master  workman, 
And  I  was  daily  his  delight, 
Sporting  always  before  him; 
Sporting  in  his  habitable  earth; 
And  my  delight  was  with  the  sons  of  men. 

The  three  topics,  the  identification  of  Wisdom  with  all  forms  of  excellency, 
with  all  forms  of  prosperity,  and  again  with  creative  power,  are  successively 
opened  in  couplet  leads,  and  then  supported  in  stanzas :  in  the  third  case  the 
stanzas  exhibit  the  augmentation  which  will  be  discussed  below.  [For  other 
examples  compare  psalms  xc  and  xciv  in  the  M.  R.  B.  arrangement.]  In  Job, 
besides  the  couplet  or  triplet  leads,  there  is  a  copious  use  of  alternating  paral- 
lelism for  transitional  passages  between  passages  of  more  formal  rhythm. 
[M.  R.  B.  page  136.] 

20.   The  Refrain  is  a  verse,  or  portion  of  a  verse,  which  recurs  (exactly  or 
with  variations)  in  two  or  more  successive  stanzas  or  strophes.     Examples 

have  been  given  in  the  body  of  this  work :    the  Song  of 

.   .  .    The  Refrain 

Moses  and  Miriam  (page  143),  psalm  xlvi  (page  59),  and 

especially  psalms  xlii-iii  (page  60).  The  refrain  in  antistrophic  structure  a 
illustrated  by  psalms  Ivii  and  xl.  Psalm  cxxxvi  has  a  continuous  refrain  — 

For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever  — 


546          A  METRICAL  SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL  VERSE 

after  every  line.  The  refrain  may  come  at  the  beginning  of  stanzas  (e.g. 
psalms  Ixii,  cxl :  compare  in  Proverbs  volume  of  M.  R.  B.  page  151).  The 
effect  of  a  double  refrain  has  been  fully  described  in  connection  with  psalm 
cvii  (above,  page  61).  Another  example  is  psalm  xcix,  which  should  be  thus 
arranged :  each  stanza  is  a  sextet ;  the  first  and  third  stanzas  have  five  lines 
with  a  refrain  of  one,  the  second  and  fourth  three  lines  with  a  refrain  of  three. 
[One  of  the  short  refrains  has  dropped  out  in  the  received  text.] 


The  LORD  reigneth ;  let  the  peoples  tremble : 
He  dwelleth  between  the  cherubim :  let  the  earth  be  moved. 
The  LORD  is  great  in  Zion; 
And  he  is  high  above  all  the  peoples. 
Let  them  praise  thy  great  and  terrible  name : 
HOLY  is  HE. 

The  King's  strength  also  loveth  judgement ; 

Thou  dost  establish  equity, 

Thou  executest  judgement  and  righteousness  in  Jacob. 

EXALT  YE  THE  LORD  OUR  GOD, 

AND  WORSHIP  AT  HIS  FOOTSTOOL: 

HOLY  is  HE. 

Moses  and  Aaron  among  his  priests, 
And  Samuel  among  them  that  call  upon  his  name; 
They  called  upon  the  LORD  and  he  answered  them. 
He  spake  unto  them  in  the  pillar  of  cloud; 
They  kept  his  testimonies,  and  the  statute  that  he  gave  them. 
HOLY  is  HE. 

Thou  answeredst  them,  O  LORD  our  God : 
Thou  wast  a  God  that  forgavest  them, 
Though  thou  tookest  vengeance  of  their  doings. 
EXALT  YE  THE  LORD  OUR  GOD, 

AND  WORSHIP  AT   HIS   HOLY  HILL, 

FOR  THE  LORD  OUR  GOD  is  HOLY. 


[For  the  Augmenting  Refrain  in  David's  Lament,  see  page  169.] 

21.    An  important  structural  device  is  Interruption.     In  its  simplest  form  it 
is  seen  in  this  well-known  passage  of  Job. 


STRUCTURAL   ELABORATIONS  547 

Let  the  day  perish  wherein  I  was  born; 

And  the  night  which  said,  There  is  a  man  child  conceived ! 

Let  that  day  be  darkness; 

Let  not  God  regard  it  from  above, 

Neither  let  the  light  shine  upon  it ! 

Let  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death  claim  it  for  their  own; 

Let  a  cloud  dwell  upon  it; 

Let  all  that  maketh  black  the  day  terrify  it ! 

As  for  that  night,  let  thick  darkness  seize  upon  it; 

Let  it  not  rejoice  among  the  days  of  the  year; 

Let  it  not  come  into  the  number  of  the  months ! 

Lo,  let  that  night  be  barren; 

Let  no  joyful  voice  come  therein ! 

Let  them  curse  it  that  curse  the  day, 

Who  are  ready  to  rouse  up  leviathan ! 

Let  the  stars  of  the  twilight  thereof  be  dark ! 

Let  it  look  for  light,  but  have  none; 

Neither  let  it  behold  the  eyelids  of  the  morning : 

Because  it  shut  not  up  the  doors  of  my  mother's  womb, 
Nor  hid  trouble  from  mine  eyes ! 

The  simple  thought  of  the  passage  is  contained  in  the  opening  and  concluding 
couplets,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  strophe  and  antistrophe,  and  equally  as 
the  apodosis  and  protasis  of  a  causal  sentence.  But  the 
sequence,  at  once  grammatical  and  rhythmical,  is  broken  by 
a  tour-de-force  of  execration,  falling  into  two  unequal  masses,  the  one  an 
execration  upon  the  day,  the  other  upon  the  night.  Here,  as  always  in  Bibli- 
cal poetry,  the  interruption  is  not  an  imperfection,  but  an  additional  artistic 
effect,  in  which  rhythm  reflects  thought.  [Compare  Proverbs  volume  of 
M.  R.  B.  page  29 :  the  horror  of  the  Strange  Woman's  deadly  words  is  reflected 
in  a  shapeless  mass  of  lines  entirely  outside  the  (stanza)  rhythm  of  the  rest  of 
the  poem.  Similarly  in  Biblical  Idyls,  page  36,  the  incident  of  the  first  meet- 
ing with  the  Shulammite,  which  at  that  point  is  only  a  reminiscence,  breaks 
the  antistrophic  rhythm  of  the  whole  meditation.  Compare  also  Job  volume, 
page  140.] 

22.  There  is  Interruption  in  a  somewhat  different  sense  where  stanza 
structure  is  interrupted  by  antistrophic,  or  vice  versd.  A  simple  example  is 
psalm  Ixxxiv. 


548  A   METRICAL   SYSTEM   OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

How  lovely  are  thy  tabernacles,  O  LORD  of  hosts ! 

My  soul  longeth,  yea,  even  fainteth  for  the  courts  of  the  LORD  ; 

My  heart  and  my  flesh  cry  out  unto  the  living  God. 

Yea,  the  sparrow  hath  found  her  an  house, 

And  the  swallow  a  nest  for  herself,  where  she  may  lay  her  young, 

Even  thine  altars,  O  LORD  of  hosts,  my  King  and  my  God. 

Blessed  are  they  that  dwell  in  thy  house : 

They  will  be  still  praising  thee. 
Blessed  is  the  man  whose  strength  is  in  thee; 

In  whose  heart  are  the  high  ways  to  Zion. 

Passing  through  the  valley  of  Weeping,  they  make  it  a  place  of 
springs; 

Yea,  the  early  rain  covereth  it  with  blessings. 
They  go  from  strength  to  strength, 

Every  one  of  them  appeareth  before  God  in  Zion. 

'  O  LORD  God  of  hosts,  hear  my  prayer: 

'  Give  ear,  O  God  of  Jacob. 
'  Behold,  O  God  our  shield, 

'  And  look  upon  the  face  of  thine  anointed.'  — 

(For  a  day  in  thy  courts  is  better  than  a  thousand : 
I  had  rather  be  a  doorkeeper  in  the  house  of  my  God, 
Than  to  dwell  in  the  tents  of  wickedness.)  — 

'  For  the  LORD  God  is  a  sun  and  a  shield : 

'  The  LORD  will  give  grace  and  glory : 
'  No  good  thing  will  he  withhold  from  them  that  walk  uprightly. 

'  O  LORD  of  hosts,  blessed  is  the  man  that  trusteth  in  thee.' 

The  metrical  plan  of  this  poem  is  clear.  Two  trains  of  thought  are  reflected 
in  two  different  rhythms :  the  subjective  longing  for  God's  house  is  expressed 
in  triplet  stanzas,  the  objective  picture  of  the  pilgrimages  to  God's  house,  and 
the  pilgrim's  song,  in  a  strophe  and  antistrophe  of  four  couplets  each.  But 
in  the  very  middle  of  the  triumphant  pilgrim's  song  the  psalmist's  longing 
breaks  in  parenthetically,  and  so  the  antistrophic  effect  is  interrupted  by  a 
triplet  stanza.  This  interruption  of  one  structure  by  another  is  a  leading  effect 
in  the  poetry  of  the  psalms :  important  examples  are  analysed  in  the  M.  R.  B» 
Psalms  (volume  one,  pages  166-7). 


549 

23.  Closely  akin  to  Interruption  is  the  device  of  Suspension.    An  example 
is  psalm  xi. 

In  the  LORD  put  I  my  trust,  — 

How  say  ye  to  my  soul, 

'  Flee  as  a  bird  to  your  mountain  ? 
'  For,  lo,  the  wicked  bend  the  bow, 
1  They  make  ready  their  arrow  upon  the  string, 
'  That  they  may  shoot  in  darkness  at  the  upright  in  heart! 
*  If  the  foundations  be  destroyed, 
'  What  can  the  righteous  do  ? ' 

The  LORD  is  in  his  holy  temple, 
The  LORD,  his  throne  is  in  heaven  ; 

His  eyes  behold,  his  eyelids  try  the  children  of  men, 

The  LORD  trieth  the  righteous  : 

But  the  wicked  and  him  that  loveth  violence  his  soul  hateth. 

Upon  the  wicked  he  shall  rain  snares  ; 

Fire  and  brimstone  and  burning  wind  shall  be  the  portion 
of  their  cup. — 

For  the  LORD  is  righteous; 

He  loveth  righteousness : 

The  upright  shall  behold  his  face. 


Here  a  strophe  (2, 5)  reciting  hostile  threats,  with  its  antistrophe  of  answer- 
ing faith,  breaks  in  upon  a  single  stanza  of  trust  in  Jehovah.     But  from  the 
place  at  which  the  interruption  occurs,  it  is  better  to  regard 
the  single  stanza  as  '  suspended '  until  the  antistrophic  effect 
has  been  elaborated.     [For  other  examples  see  M.  R.  B.  Psalms  volume  one, 
page  168,  and  the  Job  volume,  page  141.] 

24.  A  form  of  Interruption  is  the  parenthetic  enlargement  of  stanzas  or 
strophes.     This  becomes  important  for  interpretation  in  psalm  xl.    The  whole 
is  a  liturgy  of  three  sections :    thanksgiving,  confession  of 
faith,  supplication.    Antistrophic  structure  obtains  through-    *n 
out.     In  the  first  section  (6, 6)  the  strophe  puts  a  deliver- 
ance, the  antistrophe  the  'new  song'  which  it  has  inspired.     The  confession 
of  faith  changes  to  4, 4 :  here  it  is  that  the  strict  rhythm  puts  the  actual  faith 
confessed,  while  parenthetic  lines  outside  the  rhythm  convey  the  feelings  of 
the  psalmist  in  proclaiming  this  new  revelation. 


550  A  METRICAL   SYSTEM   OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

Sacrifice  and  offering  thou  hast  no  delight  in; 

{Mine  ears  hast  thou  opened  •) 

Burnt  offering  and  sin  offering  hast  thou  not  required. 
Then  said  I,  Lo,  I  am  come ; 

(/«  the  roll  of  the  book  it  is  prescribed  to  me  .') 
I  delight  to  do  thy  will,  O  my  God. 

(  Yea,  thy  law  is  -within  my  heart?) 

I  have  published  righteousness  in  the  great  congregation; 

(Lo,  I  will  not  refrain  my  lips, 

O  LORD,  thou  knowest.} 

I  have  not  hid  thy  righteousness  within  my  heart ; 
I  have  declared  thy  faithfulness  and  thy  salvation. 
I  have  not  concealed  thy  lovingkindness  and  thy  truth  from  the 

great  congregation. 

The  parenthetic  lines  are  outside  the  rhythm,  and  express,  not  the  doctrine 
itself,  but  how  (by  the  affliction  described  in  the  beginning  of  the  psalm)  the 
speaker's  ears  were  opened  to  a  new  conception,  how  he  finds  it  in  the  law 
itself,  how  it  has  passed  as  a  law  into  his  very  heart,  how,  finally,  he  cannot 
refrain  his  lips  from  this  meed  of  praise.  —  Another  important  example  is 
Hezekiah's  Song:  Isaiah  volume  of  M.  R.  B.  pages  123  and  242. 

25.  Augmenting  as  a  structural  elaboration  has  been  illustrated  in  the 
monologue  quoted  above  (page  545) :   in  the  last  section,  after  the  couplet 

introduction,  the  stanzas  augment,  with  the  advance  of  the 
Augmenting  and  thought  from  4  lines  to  -  6  ?  Another  example  has  been 
Diminution 

pointed  out  in  the  body  of  this  work  (page  143).      [See 

also  M.  R.  B.  arrangement  of  psalm  cxxxvi  and  Ecclesiasticus  I.  i.]  The 
converse  device  of  Diminution  I  have  only  observed  once :  in  the  national 
elegy  of  psalm  xliv  the  depression  is  conveyed  by  the  diminution  of  successive 
pairs  of  strophes  through  the  forms  5,  j  /  4,4  ;  j,  3  ;  2,  2. 

26.  A  more  pronounced  form  of  Augmenting  is  Duplication.    The  simplest 
example  is  where,  in  a  sonnet  of  couplet  stanzas,  the  last  is  duplicated  into  a 

quatrain.  \_Proverbs  volume  I.  xi.]  The  term  may  imply 
more  than  this :  that  the  dissimilar  parallelism  of  the  other 
stanzas  is  duplicated,  as  well  as  the  number  of  lines.  Thus,  in  the  following 
arrangement  of  Proverbs,  chapter  v.  3—21,  while  the  other  stanzas  have  the 
form  2,  6,  the  second  has  the  form  4, 12,  the  sense  emphatically  confirming 
this  division. 

For  the  lips  of  a  Strange  Woman  drop  honey, 
And  her  mouth  is  smoother  than  oil; 


STRUCTURAL   ELABORATIONS  551 

But  her  latter  end  is  bitter  as  wormwood, 

Sharp  as  a  two-edged  sword. 

Her  feet  go  down  to  death ; 

Her  steps  take  hold  on  Sheol; 

So  that  she  findeth  not  the  level  path  of  life : 

Her  ways  are  unstable  and  she  knoweth  it  not 

Now  therefore,  my  sons,  hearken  unto  me, 
And  depart  not  from  the  words  of  my  mouth. 
Remove  thy  way  far  from  her, 
And  come  not  nigh  the  door  of  her  house : 

Lest  thou  give  thine  honour  unto  others, 

And  thy  years  unto  the  cruel : 

Lest  strangers  be  filled  with  thy  strength ; 

And  thy  labours  be  in  the  house  of  an  alien; 

And  thou  mourn  at  thy  latter  end, 

When  thy  flesh  and  thy  body  are  consumed, 

And  say,  '  How  have  I  hated  instruction, 

And  my  heart  despised  reproof; 

Neither  have  I  obeyed  the  voice  of  my  teachers, 

Nor  inclined  mine  ear  to  them  that  instructed  me  1 

I  was  well  nigh  in  all  evil 

In  the  midst  of  the  congregation  and  assembly.' 

Drink  waters  out  of  thine  own  cistern, 
And  running  waters  out  of  thine  own  well. 

Should  thy  springs  be  dispersed  abroad, 

And  rivers  of  water  in  the  streets? 

Let  them  be  for  thyself  alone, 

And  not  for  strangers  with  thee. 

Let  thy  fountain  be  blessed; 

And  rejoice  in  the  wife  of  thy  youth. 

As  a  loving  hind, 
And  a  pleasant  doe, 

Let  her  breasts  satisfy  thee  at  all  times; 

And  be  thou  ravished  always  with  her  love. 

For  why  shouldst  thou,  my  son,  be  ravished  with  a  strange 
woman, 

And  embrace  the  bosom  of  a  stranger  ? 

For  the  ways  of  man  are  before  the  eyes  of  the  LORD, 

And  he  maketh  level  all  his  paths. 


552  A   METRICAL   SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

Duplication  is  common  in  the  metrical  system  of  Job.  An  extreme  example 
is  section  5  [of  M.  R.  B.  arrangement].  In  this  answer  of  Job  to  Eliphaz 
the  stanzas  take  the  forms  i,  6  ;  2, 12  ;  3, 18.  The  effect  is  increased  by  the 
order  of  the  stanzas :  Job,  having  three  times  used  the  form  2, 12,  in  an 
accession  of  bitterness  rises  to  the  form  j,  18,  and  then  subsides  into  despair 
in  a  stanza  of  the  form  i,  6.  [Compare  also  sections  3,  28,  43.] 

27.   In  the  elaborate  metrical  system  of  Job  (and  occasionally  elsewhere) 
both  Augmenting  and  Duplication  combine  with  antistrophic 

Augmenting  structure  in  very  interesting  metrical  effects.     In  Job,  sec- 

Duplication  J 

tion  40,  we  have : 

Strophe  of  3  lines :  A  vision 

Antistrophe  of  6  lines  :  The  warning  it  conveys 
Strophe  of  8  lines :  Affliction 

Antistrophe  of  16  lines :  The  purpose  of  affliction  to  warn 

This  may  be  called  Antistrophic  Duplication  :  instead  of  each  antistrophe 
exactly  balancing  its  strophe  it  exactly  duplicates  it.  [Compare  Ecclesiasticus 
volume  I.  Ixxix,  where  the  strophes  run:  4,2;  8,4:  the  lines  of  invocation 
being  outside  the  rhythm.]  Still  more  interesting  is  the  Augmenting  Dupli- 
cation in  the  speech  of  Elihu.  The  first  note  of  his  speech  is  the  effort  to 
overcome  nervousness  on  the  part  of  a  young  man  interposing  in  an  assembly 
of  elders :  here  the  rhythm  takes  the  highly  suggestive  forms  i,  i ;  i,  /  ; 
2, 2  ;  2,2  ;  4,  4;  4,4  ;  6,  6  ;  6,  6.  Sense  and  rhythm  are  thus  in  perfect 
conformity :  Elihu  wavers  between  a  feeling  of  his  own  importance  and  awe 
of  his  elders,  but  his  impetuosity  grows  until  he  reaches  the  point  of  direct 
appeal. 

I  am  young, 

And  ye  are  very  old : 
Wherefore  I  held  back, 

And  durst  not  shew  you  mine  opinion. 

I  said,  Days  should  speak, 

And  multitude  of  years  should  teach  wisdom. 

But  there  is  a  spirit  in  man, 

And  the  breath  of  the  Almighty  giveth  them  understanding. 
It  is  not  the  great  that  are  wise, 
Nor  the  aged  that  understand  judgment. 

Therefore  I  say,  Hearken  to  me; 

I  also  will  shew  mine  opinion. 


553 


Behold,  I  waited  for  your  words, 
I  listened  for  your  reasons, 
Whilst  ye  searched  out  what  to  say; 
Yea,  I  attended  unto  you : 

And,  behold,  there  was  none  that  convinced  Job, 

Or  that  answered  his  words,  among  you. 

Beware  lest  ye  say, '  We  have  found  wisdom; 

God  may  vanquish  him,  not  man '  : 
For  he  hath  not  directed  his  words  against  me; 
Neither  will  I  answer  him  with  your  speeches. 
They  are  amazed,  they  answer  no  more  : 
They  have  not  a  word  to  say. 

And  shall  I  wait  because  they  speak  not, 

Because  they  stand  still,  and  answer  no  more? 

I  also  will  answer  my  part, 

I  also  will  shew  my  opinion. 

For  I  am  full  of  words ; 

The  spirit  within  me  constraineth  me; 

Behold,  my  belly  is  as  wine  which  hath  no  vent; 

Like  new  bottles  which  are  ready  to  burst. 

I  will  speak  that  I  may  find  relief; 

I  will  open  my  lips  and  answer. 

Let  me  not,  I  pray  you,  respect  any  man's  person; 

Neither  will  I  give  nattering  titles  unto  any  man. 

For  I  know  not  to  give  flattering  titles; 

Else  would  my  Maker  soon  take  me  away. 

Howbeit,  Job,  I  pray  thee,  hear  my  speech, 

And  hearken  to  all  my  words. 
Behold  now,  I  have  opened  my  mouth, 
My  tongue  hath  spoken  in  my  mouth. 
My  words  shall  utter  the  uprightness  of  my  heart : 
And  that  which  my  lips  know  they  shall  speak  sincerely. 
The  spirit  of  God  hath  made  me, 
And  the  breath  of  the  Almighty  giveth  me  life. 

If  thou  canst,  answer  thou  me; 

Set  thy  words  in  order  before  me,  stand  forth. 

Behold,  I  am  according  to  thy  wish  in  God's  stead. 

I  also  am  formed  out  of  the  clay : 

Behold,  my  terror  shall  not  make  thee  afraid, 

Neither  shall  my  pressure  be  heavy  upon  thee. 


554  A   METRICAL   SYSTEM   OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

From  this  point  Elihu  settles  down  to  his  argument,  and  other  rhythmic 
forms  obtain.  But  later  on  he  is  stirred  from  philosophic  calm  by  the  on- 
coming of  the  tempest :  and  in  the  growing  excitement  of  its  advance  a 
similar  rhythm  of  augmenting  duplication  appears  that  is  even  more  pro- 
nounced, the  strophes  taking  the  form  1,3;  it  3;  2,6;  2,6;  4,12;  4,12. 
[See  section  44  of  the  M.  R.  B.  arrangement.] 

28.  I  have  remarked  in  the  body  of  this  work  on  the  Pendulum  form  as 
eminently  characteristic  of  Hebrew  thought.     In  the  example  cited  on  pages 

58-9  the  alternation  is  between  guilty  neglect  and  terrible 

retribution;    here  the  pendulum  form  is  an  elaboration  of 
movement  ,   ,  , 

antistrophic  structure,  and  the  formula  for  the  passage  would 

be  5t5S  it*  >  i>i>  4i4-  It  obtains  equally  in  strophic  structure,  as  illustrated 
in  psalms  Ixxviii  and  cvi  (pages  145-9),  and  in  the  latter  part  of  psalm  cvii 
(page  155).  In  Job  we  find  a  triple  pendulum.  The  Oath  of  Clearing  is  a 
song  constructed  on  three  notes:  one  describes  the  sins  to  be  disavowed; 
a  second  invokes  penalties  if  the.  speaker  has  been  guilty  of  these  sins;  a  third 
is  made  by  a  recoil  from  the  very  thought  of  entertaining  such  sins  against 
God. 

If  I  have  walked  with  vanity, 
And  my  foot  hath  hasted  to  deceit; 

(Let  me  be  weighed  in  an  even  balance, 
That  God  may  know  mine  integrity;) 
If  my  step  hath  turned  out  of  the  way, 
And  mine  heart  walked  after  mine  eyes, 
And  if  any  spot  hath  cleaved  to  mine  hands : 
Then  let  me  sow  and  let  another  eat; 
Yea,  let  the  produce  of  my  field  be  rooted  out. 

This  triple  alternation  is  maintained  for  more  than  80  lines.  A  triple  pen- 
dulum characterises  again  the  first  part  of  the  Divine  Intervention  [Job 
volume,  page  137.] 

29.  Variation  obtains  where,  in  a  series  of  sequences  otherwise  parallel, 
Variation  ^e  dissimilar  parallelism  is  differently  distributed. 

Strophe 

Withhold  not  good  from  them  to  whom  it  is  due, 
When  it  is  in  the  power  of  thine  hand  to  do  it. 

Say  not  unto  thy  neighbour, 

Go,  and  come  again, 

And  tomorrow  I  will  give  thee, 
When  thou  hast  it  by  thee. 


CONCLUSION  555 

Antistrophe 

Devise  not  evil  against  thy  neighbour, 
Seeing  he  dwelleth  securely  by  thee. 

Strive  not  with  a  man  without  cause, 
If  he  have  done  thee  no  harm. 

Envy  thou  not  the  man  of  violence, 

And  choose  none  of  his  ways. 

In  this  simple  example  each  strophe  consists  of  six  lines  with  the  same  dis- 
similar parallelism  4  a  +  2  b :  but  in  the  first  the  lines  run  abaaab,  in  the 
second  ababaa.  Similarly,  the  stanzas  of  psalm  cxliii  (printed  above,  page 
187)  are  all  quatrains,  but  three  different  arrangements  of  the  lines  are  to  be 
traced  in  the  several  stanzas,  viz.  aabb,  abab,  abba. 


Conclusion  ^ 

30.  Two  remarks  may  be  made  in  conclusion.  It  may  be  observed  that 
the  arrangement  of  lines  in  passages  here  cited,  or  in  the  Modern  Reader's 
Bible  to  which  references  are  made,  is  very  different  from  that  in  other 
editions  of  the  Bible,  and  the  question  may  be  asked,  What  principle  regu- 
lates such  arrangements?  In  answer,  I  would  draw  attention  to  the  funda- 
mental difference  between  metrical  systems  in  other  languages,  resting  upon 
rhyme  and  syllabic  quantity,  and  the  Hebrew  parallelism  of  clauses.  The 
mechanical  divisions  in  the  former  case  approach  the  rigidity  of  material 
things :  parallelism  belongs  to  the  world  of  thought,  and  in  the  nature  of 
things  admits  great  variability  of  analysis.  Hence,  in  the  systematisation  of 
parallelism  there  is  no  right  and  wrong,  but  only  better  and  worse;  and  the 
test  will  be  the  amount  of  symmetry  and  beauty  that  a  proposed  arrangement 
brings  out.  Too  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  principle  of  universal 
literature  by  which  metre  is  a  reflection  of  thought.  The  chief  point  to  grasp 
is,  not  that  any  particular  metre  has  a  particular  significance  (though  this  may 
occasionally  be  true),  but  that,  as  a  regular  thing,  metrical  changes  reflect 
changes  of  spirit  and  thought.  I  have  endeavoured  to  illustrate  this  in  all 
parts  of  the  above  exposition.1 

Again,  the  question  is  often  raised,  where  elaborate  systematisation  is 
suggested  in  connection  with  literature,  Are  we  to  understand  that  the  authors 
really  intended  this  elaborate  scheme  ?  The  question  is  caused  by  a  confusion 

l  In  application  to  other  literatures  I  have  discussed  this  principle  in  my 
Shakespeare  as  a  Dramatic  Artist  (3d  ed.,  pages  349-55) ,  and  my  Ancient  Classical 
Drama  (passim;  see  Metre  in  Index). 


556          A  METRICAL  SYSTEM  OF  BIBLICAL   VERSE 

between  the  two  meanings  of  the  word  '  purpose ' :  the  conscious  '  purpose 
of  an  individual  who  produces,  and  the  '  purpose '  served  by  the  thing  pro- 
duced as  a  part  of  a  scientific  scheme.  Analytic  purpose  is  not  to  be  assumed 
on  the  part  of  a  poet,  though  of  course  individual  poets  may  be  analytic  as 
well  as  poetic.  All  that  is  assumed,  in  the  matter  of  metre,  is  a  highly  devel- 
oped sense  of  rhythmic  beauty  on  the  poet's  part ;  this  leads  him  to  produce 
what  satisfies  his  keen  sense  of  form.  It  is  then  for  analysis  to  take  the 
intricate  product  to  pieces,  and  to  see  in  what  its  intricacy  has  consisted.  The 
test  of  accuracy  in  such  analytic  examination  is  '  system,'  that  is,  the  recurrence 
of  the  same  results  in  numerous  and  diverse  poetic  productions. 


APPENDIX   IV 


A    REFERENCE    TABLE 


TO  CONNECT  THE  PAGING  OF  THE  FIRST  AND  THE  PRESENT  EDITIONS 


*,*  Where  slopingfigures  are  used,  the  correspondence  is  only  approximate 


FIRST 

PRESENT 

FIRST 

PRESENT 

FIRST 

PRESENT 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

1-49 

1-49 

86 

88 

1  12  beg. 

109 

50-1 

55~t> 

87 

89 

1  1  2-3 

"3-4 

53-4 

S6-8;  543 

88 

90 

1  13  end 

114-5 

54-5 

50;  533 

89 

9» 

114-7 

115-8 

57 

59-60 

90 

92 

120-4 

124-8 

58-9 

50-2 

9i 

95 

125 

131 

59-60 

54-5 

92 

96 

127 

133 

61 

540;  546 

93 

97 

128 

»34 

62 

53-4!  S42 

94 

98 

129 

'35 

t>3-7 

59-t>3!  545-b 

95 

99 

130 

136 

67  end 

63 

96 

100 

131 

»37 

68 

64 

97 

IOI 

132 

138 

69 

65 

98 

IO2 

133 

139 

70 

66 

99 

103 

134 

140 

7' 

67 

too 

104 

»35 

141 

72 

68 

IOI 

105 

136 

142 

73 

69 

IO2 

1  06 

*37 

H3 

74 

7° 

103 

IO7 

138 

144 

75 

7' 

104 

1  08 

»39 

MS 

76 

72 

^05 

75 

140 

146 

77  beg. 

73 

1  06 

76 

141 

H7 

77-80 

92-4 

107 

79 

142 

148 

81 

83 

1  08 

78 

143 

149 

82 

84 

109 

80 

144 

15° 

83 

85 

no 

Si 

144-6 

152-4 

84 

86 

in  beg. 

82 

146-7 

113  note 

85 

87 

in  end 

108-9 

147-8 

163;  407-1) 

557 


558 


A   REFERENCE    TABLE 


FIRST 

PRESENT 

FIRST 

PRESENT 

FIRST 

PRESENT 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

148-9 

154-5 

189 

174-5 

249 

256 

149  end 

150-1 

190 

175-6 

250 

256-7 

750  mid. 

/9J-6 

191 

176-7 

251 

258 

150-1 

'55-6 

192  beg. 

177 

252 

259 

151-2 

156-7 

192-3 

179-80 

253 

287 

»53 

158 

194 

207 

255 

289 

154 

i59 

*95 

208 

256 

290 

155 

1  60 

196 

209 

257 

291 

'S&-7 

167-8 

197 

2IO 

258 

292 

158 

169 

198 

211 

259 

293 

'S8-9 

182-3 

199 

212 

260 

294 

159  end 

162 

199-217 

2I2-2O 

26l 

295 

ibo 

197 

221 

227 

262 

296 

160-1 

203-4 

222 

228        „ 

263 

297 

161-3 

201-3 

223 

229 

264 

298 

164 

198-9 

224 

230 

265 

299 

165 

199-200 

225 

231 

266 

300 

165-6 

200-1 

226 

232 

267 

301 

170  end 

I65 

227 

233 

268 

302 

171 

165-6 

228 

234 

269 

3°3 

172 

166-7 

229 

235 

270 

304 

»73 

I67 

230 

236 

27I 

3«>5 

'74 

185 

231 

237 

272 

306 

175 

1  86 

232 

238 

273 

307 

176 

187 

233 

239 

274 

308 

177 

1  88 

234 

240 

275 

309 

178 

189 

235 

241 

276 

310 

179 

190 

236 

242 

277 

3" 

180 

191 

237 

243 

278 

312 

181 

192 

238 

244 

279 

313 

182 

193 

239 

245 

280 

3H 

183  beg. 

194 

240 

246 

281 

315 

183  end 

770,  181 

241 

247 

282 

316 

184 

194-5 

242 

248 

283 

317-8 

185  beg. 

i?o,  5'4 

243 

249 

284 

3»9 

'8S 

204. 

244 

25O-I 

285 

320 

185-6 

178-9 

245 

251-2 

286 

321 

1  86 

171 

246 

252-3 

287 

322 

187 

172 

247 

253-4 

288 

323 

1  88 

173-4 

248 

255 

289 

324 

A   REFERENCE   TABLE 


559 


FIRST 

PRESENT 

FIRST 

PRESENT 

FIRST 

PRESENT 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

290 

325 

331 

367-8 

382-5 

424-8 

291 

326 

332  beg. 

112 

385-6 

428-9 

292-3 

327-8 

332-3 

368-9 

386-91 

429-32 

293  end 

329  end 

333-4 

369-70 

391-4 

432-4 

294 

330 

334-5 

370-1 

395 

435 

295 

331 

336 

372 

396 

436 

296 

332 

337  t>'g- 

377 

397 

437 

297 

333 

337  end 

373 

398 

438 

298 

334 

338-40 

373-5 

399 

439 

299 

335 

340  end 

377-8 

400 

440 

300 

336 

340-2 

378-9 

401 

441 

301 

337 

342  end 

379-8o 

402 

442 

302 

338 

343 

380-1 

403 

443 

303 

339 

344-5 

381-2 

404-5 

444 

304 

340 

345  mid. 

382-3 

405 

445 

305 

34» 

345-7 

383-4 

406 

445-6 

306 

342 

347-8 

384-5 

407 

446-7 

307 

343 

348-51 

385-9 

408 

447-8 

308 

344 

351-2 

389 

409-10 

121-3;  449-50 

309 

345 

353 

390 

410-3 

450-3 

310 

346 

354 

39i 

413-6 

453-6 

3" 

347 

355 

392 

4»7 

457 

312 

348 

356 

393 

418 

458 

3*3 

349 

357 

394-5 

419 

459-6o 

3H 

35° 

35S 

395 

420 

460-1 

315 

35» 

358-9 

397-8 

420  end 

463-4 

316 

352 

359-6i 

398-400 

420-5 

461-4 

3»7 

353 

36i-3 

400-3 

425  end 

464 

3i8 

354 

364 

404 

426-7 

464-6 

3i9 

355 

365 

405 

427-8 

466-7 

320 

356 

366-7 

406-7 

429 

467-8 

321 

357 

367  end 

409 

430 

468-70 

322 

358 

368 

410 

431 

47' 

323 

359 

369 

411 

432 

472 

324 

360 

37° 

412 

433 

473 

325 

361 

37i 

413 

434 

474 

327 

363 

372 

414 

435 

475 

328 

364 

373 

415 

436 

476 

329 

365-6 

374-8o 

416-23 

437 

261 

330 

366-7 

380-1 

423-4 

439 

263 

560 


A   REFERENCE    TABLE 


FIRST 

PRESENT 

FIRST 

PRESENT 

FIRST 

PRESENT 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

EDITION 

440 

264 

463 

477 

486-7 

500-3 

441 

265 

465 

479 

487  end 

503 

442 

266 

466 

480 

488 

5<>3 

443 

267 

467 

481 

489 

504 

444 

268 

468 

482 

490 

5°4-5 

445 

269 

469 

483 

491 

505-6 

446 

270 

470 

484 

492-5 

506-9 

447 

27I 

471 

485 

496 

510 

448 

272 

472 

486 

497 

5" 

449 

273 

473 

487 

498 

5" 

450 

274 

474 

488 

499 

513 

45» 

275 

475 

489 

500-1 

SM-S 

452 

276 

476 

490 

502 

5i6 

453 

277 

477 

491 

5°3 

5^7 

454 

278 

478 

492 

5°4 

5i8 

455 

279 

479 

493 

5°S 

5i9 

456 

280 

480 

494 

506 

520 

457 

281 

481 

495-6 

5°7 

521 

458 

282 

482 

496-7 

508 

522 

459 

283 

483 

497-8 

5°9 

523 

460 

284 

484 

498-9 

51° 

524 

461 

285 

485 

499-500 

5" 

525 

GENERAL    INDEX 


***  For  Books  of  the  Bible,  or  any  portions  of  them,  see  above,  Literary  Index  to  the 

Bible. 
***  For  Literary  Forms  ('  Prophecy,'  'Epic,'  'Lyric,'  &*£.),  or  subdivisions  of  these 

(sue ft  as  '  Emblem  Prophecy,'  '  Dramatic  Lyrics ,'  A'c.),  see  above,  Appendix  II. 


Accession  Hymns :  197. 

Acrostic  devices:  168  and  note  — 
Acrostic  Elegies,  168  —  Meditations, 
170  —  Various  examples,  193  (note), 
322,  and  (Table)  514-5. 

Acts  (or  advancing  Stages)  as  a  mode 
of  mpvement  in  Prophetic  litera- 
ture :  41 1-5. 

Address,  Literature  of:  263  and  Book 
IV  —  Divine  Address  as  element  of 
Rhapsodic  dialogue :  410. 

Alternation  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment (Pendulum  Movement):  145-8, 
149,  112-3  an<i  note,  154-5,  193 
note.  —  Antistrophic :  540. 

Amatory  language  and  Symbolism: 
220-4. 

Analytic  Imagination  in   Wisdom: 

341- 

Anthems,  Dramatic :  191-4  and 
(Table)  515  —  National :  1 48  and 
(Table)  514 — Occasional:  196  and 
(Table)  515  —  Festal:  197  and 
(Table)  515 — War:  196-7  and 
(Table)  515  — Votive  :  197  and 
(Table)  515. 

Antiphonal  structure  of  '  Deborah's 
Song':  138  —  of  Ritual  Psalms: 
2OI. 

Antiphony  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment: 107,  138,  201,  437-8,  453-4- 


Antique  Rhythm :  530-3,  540. 
Antistrophic  structure :  50-3,  538-42 

—  combined  with  Antique  Rhythm 
in   Solomon's  Song :   540.  —  Other 
examples:  72-3,  94,  141-2,  196. — 
Antistrophic  Alternation  and  Inter- 
lacing,  540-1 — Antistrophic  Inver- 
sion,   54-5,    541-2  —  Antistrophic 
Duplication,  553.  —  Antistrophic  as 
a  mode  of  Lyric  movement,  369. 

Antithesis  (or  Contrast)  as  mode  of 
Lyric  development:  179,  95,  101, 

!55-7- 

Apostrophe:  137,  compare  139-42. 
Ascents,  Songs  of:  165-7  and  (Table) 

5M- 
Association  as  an  effect  in  Prophetic 

literature :  472-6. 
Augmenting    as   a    mode    of   Lyric 

movement :   143,  compare  169,  448 

—  as  a  metrical  elaboration :  550  — 
Augmenting  Duplication:  552-4. 

'  Authorised  Version  '  of  the  Bible : 
45,  46,  84-92. 

Authorship  not  an  element  in  literary 
study :  96-7  —  in  application  to  Bib- 
lical poetry:  97-100. 


561 


Ballad  Dance  as  a  primitive  literary 
form:  79-82.  —  War  Ballads:  (Ta- 
ble) 515. 


562 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Benedictions:  197. 
Blessing  as  a  form  of  Prophetic  litera- 
ture :  284-5  and  (Table)  522. 
Burden  :  364  and  (Table)  522. 

Call  (Prophetic) :  380  and  (Table)  523. 

Cardinal  Points,  The  Four,  of  Litera- 
ture :  75-6. 

Centric  Printing:  528  (note). 

Ceremonial  Worship  a  prototype  of 
Emblem  Prophecy :  377. 

Chorus,  Characterised:  Of  Nations, 
406,  448  —  Of  Elders,  418-9  —  Ce- 
lestial, 446-48  —  Of  Watchmen,  448, 
453  —  as  an  element  of  Rhapsodic 
dialogue:  410. 

Chorus,  Impersonal,  as  an  element  in 
Rhapsodic  dialogue :  410  —  illustra- 
tions: 124-8,  419,  422,  440,  442, 

443.  44S»  449.  452- 
Chorus,  Reciting,  in  Solomon's  Song: 

209. 
Climax  and  Crescendo  as  devices  of 

Lyric  movement:  72,  154,  155,  157. 

169  —  as  an  effect  in  Lyric  Prophecy : 

Cluster  of  Prophetic  Sentences :  460. 

Cluster  of  Proverbs  :  299  and  (Table) 
519. 

Colophon  in  Ecclesiasticus  :  326  —  in 
Deuteronomy  :  482. 

Commandments,  The  Ten,  as  proto- 
type of  the  Prophetic  Discourse: 

Comment,  Text  and,  as  a  literary 
form:  297  —  applied  to  Wisdom, 

341-2- 
Concentration   as  a  mode   of   Lyric 

movement:  136,  153. 
Conclusions  in  antistrophic  and  stanza 

structure :  52,  543. 
Constitutional  History :  251-2. 
Contrast  (or  Antithesis)  as  a  mode  o 

Lyric  development :    179,   95,    101 
'55-7- 


ontroversy,  Prophetic:  384  and 
(Table)  524. 

Couplet  and  Triplet  as  figures  of  Par- 
allelism :  48-9.  —  Couplet  as  a  met- 
rical unit :  529. 

reation,  Account  of,  in  Genesis  as 
example  of  Parallelism  :  67-8. 

rescendo  and  Climax  as  devices  of 
Lyric  movement:  72,  154,  155, 
XS7>  !^9  —  as  an  effect  in  Lyric 
Prophecy:  369. 

Ties  as  an  element  of  Rhapsodic  dia- 
logue: 410,412,429-31. 

iurse,  The,  in  Job:  6,  31— the 
Primitive  Curse  a  prototype  of  the 
Doom  Song :  392. 

lycle  in  Prophecy :  464-7  and  (Table) 
522.  [Of  Discourses,  464-6  —  Dia- 
lectic Cycle,  464  (compare  383-4) 

—  of  Dooms,  464  (compare   115-8) 

—  Emblem    Cycle,    464    (compare 
433-4)  —  Vision  Cycle,  466-7,  469, 

47I-] 
Cycle  or  Game  of  Riddles:  291  and 

(Table)  519. 
Cycle,  Prophetic  [of  Stories]:   244 
and  (Table)  518. 

Dancing,  its  connection  with  metre: 
138,  152,  529-30. 

Description  as  a  Cardinal  Point  of 
Literature:  75,  78-82. 

Description,  Scenic  (in  the  Rhap- 
sody) :  410;  compare  416-23,  428, 
439,440,450-2.  —  Prophetic:  410, 
416-7,  (Vision)  430-1. 

Development,  Lyric:  171.  (See 
Movement.) 

Dialogue,  Elements  of,  in  Rhapsody: 
409-11. 

Digression  in  Wisdom  :  342  —  Chain 
of  Digressions  and  Digressive  Sub- 
ordination, 355. 

Diminution  as  a  metrical  elaboration : 

550- 


GENERAL  INDEX 


563 


Dirge  as  prototype  of  Elegy:  151, 
167  —  Dirge  Rhythm:  168, 369, 400. 

Discourse :  Wisdom  Discourses,  506, 
341  and  Chapter  XV  —  Prophetic, 
364  and  (Table)  522  —  Rhapsodic, 
429  and  (Table)  524. 

Divine  Intervention  in  Job:  22-4, 

34-5- 

Doom  Form  :  123  and  Chapter  XVII; 
compare  543. 

Doom  Songs :  Chapter  XVII  and 
(Table)  522. 

Doxologies:  in,  444  (note  2). 

Drama  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental 
literary  forms :  78,  80.  —  Hebrew  lit- 
erature shows  dramatic  influences 
rather  than  drama,  108-9;  compare 
423  and  Chapter  XVIII.  —  Dramatic 
Interest  in  Job,  25-7. 

Dramatic  Lyrics:  185  and  (Table)  515. 

Dramatic  Monologue:  316  and  (Table) 
521- 

Dramatic  Transition  as  a  mode  of 
Lyric  movement:  92—4,  188-90 
(compare  194-5) — as  an  effect  in 
Prophetic  literature :  423-8,  406. 

Dumb  Show  in  Prophecy :  374. 

Duplication  as  a  metrical  elaboration : 
550-4  —  Augmenting  Duplication: 
552-4  —  Antistrophic  Duplication : 
552. 

Ecclesiastical  History :  255-9. 

Elaboration,  Structural:  543-55.  [See 
under  Metrical  System.] 

Elegies  :  167  and  (Table)  514. 

Emblem  Literature :  372  —  Quarles's 
emblems,  372. 

Emendation,  Textual :  59  (note)  — 
compare  17-8,  486  (note),  310 
(notes). 

Encomium  Rhetoric:  315-6  and 
(Table)  520. 

Enlargement,  Parenthetic,  as  a  met- 
rical elaboration :  549-50. 


Enumeration  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  de- 
velopment: 204.  (See  Reitera- 
tion. )  —  In  Rhetoric  style  :  335, 

35 1.  399- 

Envelope  Figure  (or  Structure):  56-8, 
543  —  compare  65,  66,  92-4 —  En- 
veloping Vision :  466-7. 

Epic  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental 
literary  forms :  79-81  —  question  of 
Epic  Poetry  in  the  Bible,  227  — 
Epic  and  History,  227  —  Epic  In- 
terest in  Job,  28-30. 

Epic,  Various  forms  of:  229-49  and 
(Table)  518. 

Epic  Idyl:  241  and  (Table)  525,518. 

Epic  Prophecy :  244  and  (Table)  518. 

Epigram :  294  and  (Table)  521. 

Epilogue:  338,428. 

Epistle:  Gnomic,  321-2,  327-9  — 
Epistolary  Manifesto,  266-7  —  Pas- 
toral Epistle,  263-5  —  Epistolary 
Treatise,  265-6  —  Table  of  Episto- 
lary Literature,  525. 

Essay:  298-306  and  (Table)  520. 

Exile  Songs:  60,  168,  165-7. 

Fable :  Table  on  page  519  —  compare 
382  and  note. 

Festal  Hymns:   197  and  (Table)  515. 

Floating  Poetry :  97-100. 

Folk  Songs:  Table  on  page  514 — 
compare  64-5,  322. 

Footnotes  in  Deuteronomy  :  269. 

Form  and  Matter,  close  connection  of, 
in  literary  study :  74-5  — The  High- 
er Literary  Forms,  75  and  Chapter 
III  —  The  Lower  or  Fundamental 
Literary  Form  of  Versification,  45 
and  Chapter  I  —  Doom  Form,  1 23 
and  Chapter  XVII;  compare  543. 

Gnomic  Epistles:  321-2,  327-9,  and 

(Table)  525. 
Gospels  as  a  literary  form :  256-7  and 

(Table)  517. 


564 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Gradual  Psalms :   165  (note). 

Hallelujahs:  197. 

Hebrew  Literature,  Distinguishing 
Features  of:  108-29.  [No  Stage 
Drama,  but  wide  dramatic  influ- 
ences, 108  —  Special  department 
of  Prophecy,  109  —  Prominence  of 
Sevenfold  Structure,  no — Pendu- 
lum Movement  of  Thought,  112  — 
Overlapping  of  Verse  and  Prose, 
113-29.] 

History  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental 
literary  forms:  81. 

History,  Various  forms  of:  250  and 
Chapter  X,  and  (Table)  516-7  — 
Primitive  History,  250  —  Consti- 
tutional History,  251  —  Incidental 
History,  252  —  Regular  History,  254 
—  Ecclesiastical  History,  255  —  The 
Gospels,  256  —  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  258. 

Idyl  as  a  literary  form:  208  (note), 
and  (Table)  525  —  Solomon's  Song, 
207  and  Chapter  VIII  —  Ruth,  241. 

Imagery  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  develop- 
ment: 171-9,86,204  —  massing  of 
imagery,  171-3  (compare  475-6)  — 
Concealed  Imagery,  173—7 —  Meta- 
phor Direct,  177-9. 

Imprecatory  Psalms :  182. 

Inauguration  of  Jerusalem,  Anthems 
for:  104-8,  159-61. 

Incident:  in  History,  229 — in  Proph- 
ecy, 384  and  (Table)  524. 

Incidental  History:  252-4. 

Inquiry,  Prophetic:  383,  375,  and 
(Table)  524. 

Intercession  as  Prophetic  prototype : 

383. 

Intercourse,  Prophetic:  383  and 
(Table)  524. 

Interlacing  (or  Interweaving)  Paral- 
lelism: 540-1. 


Interruption  as  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment: 137,  150-1  —  in  Prophetic 
literature,  124-8  (compare  428)  — 
as  a  metrical  elaboration  :  546-8. 

Interweaving  (or  Interlacing)  Paral- 
lelism: 540-1. 

Introductions  in  antistrophic  or  stanza 
structure :  52,  543. 

Inversion  or  Introversion :  in  Coup- 
lets and  Triplets,  55-6  —  Anti- 
strophic, 50-3,  541-2. 

Judgment :  force  of  the  word  in  O. 
T. :  338  —  as  a  motive  in  Lyric 
poetry:  see  Table  on  page  514  — 
in  Prophetic  literature :  Book  VI 
generally — especially  404  and  Chap- 
ter XVIII,  438,  453-6. 

Lamech,  Song  of:  64. 

Lamentations  of  Jeremiah:  168. 

Leads  in  antistrophic  or  stanza  struc- 
ture: 544-5. 

Lectionary,  Revised :  46. 

Line,  The,  as  a  metrical  unit :  530. 

Litanies:  183. 

Liturgies:   198-201  and  (Table)  515. 

Lord's  Prayer,  The,  as  an  envelope 
figure:  65-6. 

Lyric  as  one  of  the  six  fundamental 
literary  forms:  78-81  —  Lyric  Poe- 
try of  the  Bible:  Book II  —  Lyric 
movement  or  development :  see 
Movement.  —  Lyric  elements  in 
Rhapsodic  dialogue,  410  —  Lyric 
Outbursts  in  Prophecy,  124-8,  406, 
418-22,  440-5,  452  —  Lyric  Interest 
in  Job,  31-2. 

Lyric  Prophecy :  369  and  (Table)  522. 

Lyrics,  Prophetic  :  369  and  (Table) 
522. 

Lyric  types,  earlier  and  later:  151-2 
—  three  sources  of  Lyric  poetry, 
151-2  —  Meditation,  170  and 
(Table)  514. 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Manifesto,  Epistolary:  266,  267  and 
(Table)  525  —  Prophetic:  429,468- 

7°.  497.  SOS- 
Matter   and  Form,  close  connection 

of,  in  literary  study  :   74-5. 
Maxims  :  297  and  (Table)  519. 
Meditations,  Lyric :  170  and  (Table) 

5H- 

Metaphor  Direct :   177-9. 

Metre :  as  a  reflection  of  thought,  555 
—  of  Biblical  Verse,  Appendix  III. 
See  following  sections. 

Metrical  System  of  Biblical  Verse  : 
Appendix  III.  —  Founded  on  par- 
allelism of  clauses,  526.  —  General 
ideas  of  parallelism  :  526-8,  555-6, 
compare  Chapters  I  and  II.  [Paral- 
lelism Similar  and  Dissimilar,  526-7; 

Semi-parallelism,  527.]  Units 

of  Parallelism  :  528-30  [Metrical 
Units,  528;  the  Strain,  528-9;  the 
Couplet,  529;  the  Line,  529-30]. 

Metrical  System  continued:  Metri- 
cal Structures :  530-43.  —  Antique 
Rhythm,  530-3  —  Stanza  Struc- 
ture, 533-8  [Stanzas,  533;  Mixed 
Stanzas,  534-8]  —  Antistrophic 
Structure,  538-42  and  compare 
50-3  [General  idea  of  Antistrophic, 
538  and  50-3;  combined  with  An- 
tique Rhythm  in  Solomon's  Song, 
540;  Antistrophic  Alternation  and 
Interlacing,  540-1 ;  Antistrophic  In- 
version, 541-2  and  54] — Strophic 
Structure,  542  and  53  —  Envelope 
Structure,  543  (compare  56,  57, 
65, 66, 94, 191-4)  —  Number  Struc- 
ture, 543  (compare  308)  —  Doom 
Form,  543  (compare  123). 

Metrical  System  continued :  Struc- 
tural Elaborations  :  543-55.  —  In- 
troductions, Conclusions  and 
Leads,  543-5  —  Refrains,  545-6 
(compare  59,  60,  61,  143,  169)  — 
Interruption,  546-8  —  Suspension, 


549  —  Parenthetic  Enlargement, 
549-50  —  Augmenting  and  Dimi- 
nution, 550-2 — Duplication,  550-2 

—  Augmenting  Duplication,  552-4 

—  Pendulum  Movement,  5  54  (com- 
pare 58-9, 1 1 2-3, 145-9,  154-5,  387, 

4i5-23.  439-44,  455-6)— Varia- 
tion, 554-5. 

Miscellanies  of  Wisdom:  319,  324; 
compare  330. 

Mixed  Stanzas :  534-8. 

Modern  Reader's  Bible :  see  xiii,  and 
533  (note). 

Monodies,  Lyric:  181  and  Chapter 
VII,  and  (Table)  515. 

Monologues,  in  Lyric  Poetry:  515  — 
(in  Wisdom  Literature)  Dramatic 
Monologues,  316-8  and  (Table)  521 

—  Prophetic  Monologue  or   Solilo- 
quy,  445,    446,    452.  —  Alternating 
Monologue  as  an  element  of  Rhap- 
sodic dialogue :    410,  compare  387 
and  439-44. 

Movement,  Modes  of,  in  Lyric  Poe- 
try: Alternation  (or  Pendulum 
Movement),  145-8, 149, 113  (note), 
154-5  —  Antiphony,  138,  107,204- 
6  —  Augmenting,  143,  169,  448  — 
Concentration,  136,  153  —  Con- 
trast or  Antithesis,  179,  95,  101, 
155-7  —  Crescendo  and  Climax, 
72,  154,  155,  157,  169,  369  — Dra- 
matic Transition,  92-4,  188-90 
(compare  195) — Imagery,  171-9, 
86  — Interruption,  137,  151  — Re- 
iteration, Enumeration,  Repeti- 
tion, and  Refrain,  204,  59-60,  150, 
153,  154  (compare  61-3),  198  — 
Retrogression,  191-4. 

Movement,  Modes  of,  in  Prophetic 
Literature :  Advancing  Stages  or 
'Acts,'  411-5  —  Distinct  Stages  or 
'  Visions,'  432-4,  435-7  and  Chap- 
ter XIX  —  Alternation  or  Pendu- 
lum Movement,  112,  387,  415-23, 


566 


GENERAL   INDEX 


439-44, 455-6 — Antistrophic,  370- 
i  —  Crescendo  and  Climax,  369  — 
Dramatic  Transition,  406,  423-8 
—  Interruption,  1 24-8  (compare 
428)  —  Sudden  Realisation,  428-9 
(compare  195)  —  Reiteration,  Enu- 
meration, Repetition,  and  Refrain, 

369-71.  399.  401-3,  433.  "S-8- 
Music  :  Confusion  of  figures  in  chant- 
ing, 48-9  —  Musical  Expression  of 
Structure,  63. 

Narrative,  Historic  and  Lyric:  136. 
National  Anthems  :  148  and  (Table) 

514. 

Number  Sonnet :  308-10. 
Number  Structure :  543. 

Occasional  Anthems :  196  and  (Table) 
515  —  Songs:  158  and  (Table)  514. 

Ode:  Greek,  51  —  Biblical,  133  and 
(Table)  514. 

Oracle  as  a  form  of  Prophecy :  364 
(note)  and  (Table)  522;  compare 

383.  392-5- 

Oral  tradition  in  relation  to  Biblical 
poetry :  97-100. 

Oratory  as  a  branch  of  the  Literature 
of  Address :  263,  268,  and  Chapter 
XII;  compare  Table  on  page  525. 

Overlapping  of  Verse  and  Prose  in 
Biblical  literature:  113-29  —  exam- 
ples, 370,  393-5»  400-3. 

Parable:  Table  on  page  519  —  Pro- 
phetic :  382  and  (Table)  523  —  Dra- 
matised :  Table  on  page  519. 

Paradox:  330. 

Parallelism  :  the  basis  of  Biblical  Ver- 
sification, 46-7,  526,  and  Appendix 
III.  —  Figures  of  Parallelism,  48-50, 
56,  58,  528,  and  Appendix  III  gen- 
erally. —  Lower  or  Rhythmic  Paral- 
lelism, 45  and  Chapter  I,  69-72  — 
Musical  Expression  of  Parallel  Struc- 


ture, 48-9, 63  —  Parallelism  a  factor 
in  Interpretation,  64-9  —  Higher 
Parallelism  or  Parallelism  of  Inter- 
pretation, 64  and  Chapter  II  —  Paral- 
lelism and  its  antithesis  Surprise, 
72-3  —  the  Higher  and  Lower  Par- 
allelism applied  to  the  same  passage, 
69-72.  —  Parallelism  Similar  and 
Dissimilar,  526-7  —  Semi-parallel- 
ism, 527  —  Units  of  Parallelism, 
528-30. 

Parenthetic  Enlargement,  as  a  met- 
rical elaboration :  549-50. 

Pause,  as  a  literary  device :  193,  406. 

Pendulum  Movement  (or  Alterna- 
tion), a  distinguishing  feature  of 
Hebrew  Literature :  58-9,112-3  — 
in  Lyric  Poetry,  145-8,  149,  113 
(note),  154-5  —  in  Prophetic  Lit- 
erature, 112,  387,  415-23,  439-44, 
455-6  —  as  a  metrical  elaboration, 

554- 
Personality    in    Biblical    Monodies: 

183-5- 
Philippic  in  relation  to  Doom  Song  : 

392. 

Philosophy  as  one  of  the  six  funda- 
mental literary  forms:  81 — Bibli- 
cal Philosophy  or  Wisdom,  289  and 
Book  V — Interest  of  Philosophy  in 
Job,  33. 

Philosophy  or  Wisdom,  Various 
forms  of:  Chapter  XIII  and  (Table) 
519-21. 

Poetry  as  one  of  the  four  Cardinal 
Points  of  Literature  :  76,  79-82. 

Postscript :  195. 

Prayer  as  part  of  the  Literature  of 
Address:  268  and  (Table)  525  — 
in  Lyric  poetry :  181. 

Prayer-Book  Version  of  Psalms:  85. 

Prefaces:  324-5,  and  see  506-9. 

Prelude  :  in  Lyric  Poetry,  139,  143, 
145,  153,  195,  407  — in  Prophecy, 
424,  437- 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Presentation  as  one  of  the  four  Car- 
dinal Points  of  Literature :  75,  79- 
82. 

Primitive  History:  250-1. 

Printing  of  Bible  obscures  its  form: 

45- 

Prologue  of  Ecclesiastes :  330. 

Prophecy,  one  of  the  three  distin- 
guishing features  of  Hebrew  litera- 
ture: 109  —  the  word  'prophecy,' 
363,  compare  379  —  as  a  department 
of  literature,363  —  Interest  of  Proph- 
ecy in  Job,  39. 

Prophecy,  Various  Forms  of:  Chap- 
ters XVI-XVIII,  and  (Table)  522- 
4.  [Discourse,  364-9,  522  —  Lyric 
Prophecy,  369-71,  522  —  Symbolic 
Prophecy,  372-83,  523  —  Prophetic 
Intercourse,  383-4,  524  —  Dramatic 
Prophecy,  384-9,  524  —  The  Doom 
Song,  390  and  Chapter  XVII  (com- 
pare 123),  522  —  The  Rhapsody, 
404  and  Chapters  XVIII  and  XIX, 
524.]  —  Prophetic  Sentences :  457- 
64,  522 — Prophetic  Cycles:  464-7, 
522. 

Prophet,  Call  of  the :  380  and  (Table) 
523. 

Prophet,  Sign  of  the :  378  and  (Table) 

523- 

Prophetic  Call,  380  and  (Table)  523 
—  Controversies,  384  and  (Table) 
524  —  Cycle,  464-7  and  (Table) 
522  —  Description,  410  (compare 
416-23,  430-1) — Discourse,  364 
and  (Table)  522  —  Epics,  246  and 
(Table)  518  —  Incidents,  384  and 
(Table)  524  —  Intercourse,  383 
and  (Table)  524  —  Lyrics,  369  and 
(Table)  522  —  Parable,  382  and 
(Table)  523  —  Response,  383  and 
(Table)  524  —  Rhapsody,  Chapters 
XVIII  and  XIX  and  (Table)  524  — 
Sentences,  457-64  and  (Table) 
522. 


Prose  as  one  of  the  four  Cardinal 
Points  of  Literature :  76,  79-82  — 
double  usage  of  the  word,  76 — > 
Overlapping  of  Prose  and  Verse  a 
distinguishing  feature  of  Hebrew 
literature,  113-29  (compare  370, 
393-5,  400-3). 

Proverb  :  290  and  (Table)  519-21. 

Proverb  Cluster :  299  and  (Table) 
519. 

Psalms,  Varieties  of:  see  Table  on 
pages  514-5. 

Quarles's  Emblems:  372. 
Quatrain:  50-51. 

Question  and  Answer  as  a  figure  of 
Parallelism :  57. 

Realisation  as  a  mode  of  movement 
in  Prophetic  literature :  428-9  (com- 
pare 195). 

Refrains  as  a  structural  elaboration  and 
mode  of  movement  in  Lyric  poetry 
(see  Reiteration):  59-63,  115-8, 
144-5, 209-10, 433, 545-6— in  Lyric 
Prophecy,  369  —  as  a  leit  motif  in 
Joel,  411. 

Refrain  augmenting:  169  —  paren- 
thetic: 209. 

Regular  History :  254. 

Reiteration  in  Prophecy:  373  —  in 
Prophetic  Sentences :  459. 

Reiteration  (Enumeration,  Repeti- 
tion, Refrain)  as  a  mode  of  Lyric 
movement:  204,  59-63,  150,  153, 
198— in  Prophetic  literature :  370-1, 
399,400-3,433,  115-8. 

Reminiscences,  Dramatised:  210-1. 

Repetition  as  a  mode  of  Lyric  move- 
ment: 204.  (See  Reiteration.) 

Response,  Festal :  197-8  and  (Table) 
515  — Prophetic:  383  and  (Table) 
524. 

Retrogression  as  a  mode  of  Lyric 
movement:  191-4. 


568 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Revelation  as  a   form  of  Prophecy: 

379-82  and  (Table)  523. 
Rhapsody   as    a   form  of    Prophetic 

literature :  404,  and  Chapter  XVIII 

—  Rhapsodic  Discourse:  429  and 
(Table)  524. 

Rhetoric  as  one  of  the  six  fundamen- 
tal literary  forms:  8 1 — as  a  divi- 
sion of  Biblical  literature :  263  and 
Book  IV,  and  (Table)  525  —  Inter- 
est of  Rhetoric  in  Job,  39. 

Rhetoric  Encomium:  315-6  and 
(Table)  520. 

Rhythmic  Parallelism :  69  and  Chap- 
ter I. 

Riddle  as  a  form  of  Wisdom  literature  : 
290  and  (Table)  519. 

Righteousness,  meaning  of  the  word 
in  the  Old  Testament :  439  (note). 

Ritual  Psalms :  196-206  and  (Table) 
5'5- 

Satan  in  Job :  3,  28-9. 

Satire  in  relation  to  Doom  Song :  392. 

Scenic  Description  as  an  element  of 
Rhapsodic  dialogue :  410  (compare 
416-23,  43°-!.  439-40, 448, 412-3). 

Science,  Interest  of,  in  Job :  37-9. 

Sennacherib's  Invasion,  Occasional 
Poetry  connected  with:  158-9. 

Sentences  (or  Sayings)  of  the  Wise : 
292  and  (Table)  5 1 9  —  Prophetic 
Sentences:  457-64  and  (Table)  522. 

Servant  of  Jehovah  in  Isaiahan  Rhap- 
sody :  436,  438-46,  448,  453. 

Sevenfold  Structure  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  Hebrew  literature :  1 10-2. 

Sign  of  the  Prophet :  378  and  (Table) 

523- 
Soliloquy:    445,    446,    452.       (See 

Monologue.) 
Songs  as  a  form  of  Lyric  Poetry:  158 

and  Chapter  VI,  compare  (Table)  514 

—  Occasional    Songs,    161 — Songs 
on  Themes,    161 — of  Deliverance, 


162  —  of  Providence,  162 — of  Na- 
ture, 163  —  of  Judgment,  163-4  — 
of  Trust  and  Consecration,  164  — 
The  Songs  of  Ascents,  165-7. — 
Song  of  Deborah,  133-42;  of 
Moses  and  Miriam,  143-5,  154'>  °f 
Moses,  1 1 3  (note) .  —  Choral  Songs 
in  Prophecy:  406,  410,  418,  419, 
420,  447-8,  448,  453,  454.  — Im- 
personal Songs  in  Prophecy:  410 
(compare  124—8),  422,  440,  442, 
443,  445,  449, 452.  —  Doom  Songs: 
Chapter  XVII  and  (Table)  522. 

Sonnet:  306-15  and  (Table)  521. 

Spectator,  Prophetic,  in  Rhapsodic 
dialogue :  410,  421-2. 

Speeches  :  in  Job,  39-40,  268  —  Va- 
rious :  268  and  (Table)  525  —  in 
Deuteronomy :  268  and  Chapter 
XII. 

Stages  as  a  mode  of  movement  in 
Prophetic  literature :  411-5. 

Stanzas  :  50,  533  —  Stanza  structure : 
533-8  —  Mixed  Stanzas:  534-8. 

Story,  Prophetic  :  244  and  (Table) 
5i8. 

Strain,  The,  as  a  metrical  unit :  528. 

Strophic  structure:  53,  542  (compare 

533)- 

Structure,  Antiphonal:   138,  201-6. 
Structure,  Metrical :  45,  and  Chapters 

I  and  II,  and  Appendix  III.     [See 

under  Metrical  System.] 
Structure,   Sevenfold,   prominent   in 

Hebrew  literature  :   1 10-2. 
Suspension  as  a  metrical  elaboration : 

549- 
Sword,  Song  of  the :  64  and  (Table) 

514 — Ezekiel's    Discourse    of   the 

Sword :  376-7. 
Symbolism  in  Lyric  Poetry :  220-4  — 

in  Prophecy :  372-83. 

Taunt-Song :  connected  with  Proph- 
ecy, 369  —  compare  406,  443. 


GENERAL   INDEX 


569 


Text  and  Comment  as  a  form  of 
Wisdom  literature :  297  and  (Table) 
519  —  applied  to  Wisdom,  341-2. 

Title  Pages  :  323,  481,  491,  493. 

Traditional  Poetry:  528-9,  530-3. 

Transitional  Stage  (or  Pause)  in 
Lyric  Poetry:  193  —  in  Prophecy: 
406. 

Transition,  Dramatic :  as  a  mode  of 
Lyric  movement,  92—4,  188-90 
(compare  195) — in  Prophetic  lit- 
erature :  424-8,  406.  , 

Treatise  :  298  —  Epistolary :  265-6, 
267  and  (Table)  525. 

Triplet  and  Couplet :  48-9  —  Double 
Triplet,  56  —  Triplet  Reversed,  56. 

Unit  Proverb:  290  and  (Table}  519. 

Units  of  Parallelism:  528-30  [the 
Strain,  528;  the  Couplet,  529;  the 
Line,  530]. 

Unity,  Higher:  distinguished  from 
Lower  Unities,  83-5  —  obscured  by 
modes  of  reading  and  printing 
Scripture,  83-92  —  relation  of  High- 
er Unity  to  literary  classification,  75 

—  literary  unity  distinguished  from 
unity  of  authorship,  99. 

Unity,  Higher,  Various  forms  of: 
Simple,  92  —  of  Transition,  92-5  — 
of  Contrast  and  Antithesis,  95-102 

—  of  Aggregation,   102-4  —  °f  EX" 
ternal  Circumstances,  104-8. 

Variation  as  a  metrical  elaboration : 

554-5- 

Verse  and  Prose  Overlapping,  a  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  Hebrew  litera- 
ture: 113-29  (compare  370,  393-5, 
400-3). 


Versification,  Interest  of,  in  Job: 
41  —  Versification  and  Rhythmic 
Parallelism,  45  and  Chapter  I;  and 
Appendix  III.  [Obscured  by  Print- 
ing, 45 — based  on  parallelism,  46 
—  figures  and  structures,  50-63.]  — 
System  of:  Appendix  III. 

Version  :  'Authorized,'  45,  46,  84,  88- 
92  —  Prayer-Book  Version  (of  the 
Psalms),  85  —  Revised  Version  of 
the  Bible,  46,  84-92. 

Vision  as  a  form  of  Lyrics :  194-6 
and  (Table)  515  —  of  Prophecy :  379 
and  (Table)  523  —  as  a  structural 
division  :  432-4  (compare  438-56;. 

Voices  as  an  element  in  Rhapsodic 
dialogue:  410  (compare  416-23, 
429,431,437-8). 

Votive  Hymns:  197  and  (Table)  515. 

Wail  as  a  prototype  of  the  Elegy: 
151,  167-8  —  Wail  over  Egypt: 
400-3. 

War  Ballad  :  see  Table  on  page  515. 

Watchman,  Prophetic :  392, 453,  454. 

Whirlwind  in  Job :  21-4,  25. 

Wisdom :  Biblical  term  for  Philoso- 
phy, 289  —  conception  of  Wisdom 
in  Proverbs,  323  —  in  Ecclesiasticus, 
326-7  —  in  St.  James  &nd.  St.  John, 
327-9  —  in  Ecclesiastes,  338-40  — 
in  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  342-5  — 
summary,  359-60. 

Wisdom,  Sacred  Books  of:  319  and 
Chapters  XIV,  XV,  and  Table  on 
pages  519-21 — analogies  to  these 
of  N.  T.  works,  267. 

Wisdom,  Various  Forms  of:  290  and 
Chapter  XIII,  with  Table  on  pages 
519-21. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


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Edited  with  an  introduction  by 

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